"Business is the product of environment". Explain. Also discuss the relationship between business and environment.

 Q. "Business is the product of environment". Explain. Also discuss the relationship between business and environment. 

Ans. No business enterprise functions in a vacuum. Each business operates in its unique environment. Business is the product of the environment as various environmental factors directly influence it. A business firm might be regarded as a social institution that is surrounded by external forces that affect how it operates. Both living and nonliving entities are part of the environment. Decisions of the whole business unit such as nature, location, product/service, various policies of the business unit etc are influenced by the business environment. Success or failure of any business organisation is also depend on its environment. Thus, we can say that business is the product of environment.

Relationship between business and environment: Business and environment are closely related to each other. A business enterprise can expand itself as and when favourable changes take place in the environment. On the other hand, when the prevailing environment is unfavorable, the business may face challenges and problems. The relationship between business and environment is as follows:

i) Mutually Related: There is a correlation between business and its environment. Both influences/affects each other. For example, when the competition is more, the business may decide to go for aggressive advertisement. So, here environment is affecting business. Hence, business and environment are mutually related to each other.

ii) Environment Requires Business to be Dynamic: Because of changing environment business policies and strategies have to be dynamic. Many elements in the environment are constantly changing e.g. the economic, social, political, cultural, technological factors of environment never remain constant. These factors are flexible or dynamic, so policies should be dynamic enough to adjust to the changing environment.

iii) Opportunities and Threats: If the prevailing environment is favourable for business growth and prosperity then business unit respond positively. For example, business unit is often changed to produce more when government gives subsidy or reduces tax burden. On the other hand, if business environment poses threat to the business, then it is unfavorable for business unit. For example, when the government imposes high Taz rates on profits then it acts as hindrance in the growth.

       Thus, business and environment are mutually dependent on each other. The business affects environment and environment affects business. Both business and environment are closely related to each other.  

"Business is the product of environment". Explain. Also discuss the relationship between business and environment. 

Merits and limitations of computer

 1. (a) Discuss merits of computer.

(b) Discuss limitations of computer.

Ans.  (a) Merits of computer are as follow:
i) High Speed: A computer is a high speed device capable of performing arithmetic at unbelievable speed. The units of speed in computer are microsecond, the nanosecond and even the picosecond.

ii) Accuracy: Computers never commits errors in processing. Computerized systems sometimes do produce wrong results but in almost all such cases the error is because of wrong input of data and instructions.

iii) Reliability: (means strength) The reliability of computer is indeed very high. Computers are designed so as to make maintenance easy. Most of the hardware is in module form. When a component fails, the component can be replaced or repaired at a minimal cost.

iv) Versatility: (means having different skills & qualities) A computer is a very versatile machine. This machine can be used to solve the problems relating to various different fields. At one instant, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a chess game and then a busy in taking up a payroll problem.

v) Automation: Once a program and instructions are input in the computers memory, the operator need not make intervention when program is being executed because the instructions automatically take care of the steps to be processed to solve the problem.

vi) Diligence: The capacity of computer of performing repetitive tasks without getting tired is called diligence. A computer can operate twenty four hours continuously without taking any rest. It works with same concentration and with same accuracy as the first instruction.

vii) Data Base: The use of computer facility in business organisation facilitates establishment of database. Data base integrates data records and reduces data redundancy (back ups ans duplicates).

viii) Reduction in Paper Work: The use of computers for data processing has reduced some of the paper needs through the storage of data in elaborately constructed data bases and files where they can retrieved (get back/ regain) when needed.

ix) Reduces Cost: Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

x) Facilitates Report Preparation: Data maintained with the help of a computer facilitates the preparation of various types of reports required by the organisational executives for the purpose of decision-making and control.

xi) Reduce the space requirements: The use of computers for office activities reduces the requirements of office space which otherwise is required.

xii) Reduce the manpower requirement:  The number of persons required for performing various organisational activities will be reduced by using a computer system.

xiii) Increased ability to perform computations: The use of computer has helped in performing computations with speed.

xiv) Intangible benefits: It includes customer image, leadership in the industry and community, increases customer morale and management confidence.

(b) Limitations of computers are as follow:
i) No I.Q.: It possesses (अधिकार) no intelligence of its own. It's I.Q. is zero atleast till today. It has to told what to do and in what sequence.

ii) The application logic must be understood: The computer can only process jobs which can be expressed in finite number of steps. Each step must be clearly defined. If the steps in the solution cannot be precisely stated, the job cannot be done.

iii) Dependent on human being.

iv) It requires a lot of looking after.

v) Environment: The environment for operating the computer should be suitable to it.

vi) No Feeling/Judgement: Computer cannot make judgement which a human being make in day to day life. Its judgement is based on the instructions given to it in the form of programmes that are written by us.

vii) It is very sensitive to dust particles even a small dust particle can make great losses to it. 

Meaning, importance, limitations of Microeconomics

 Q.  What is microeconomics? Discuss the importance and limitations of microeconomics. 

Ans. MEANING OF MICROECONOMICS: The term micro has been borrowed from the Greek word, ‘Mikros’ meaning small. Under microeconomics, we study individual units, like, a Consumer, a firm, an industry, price determination of a particular commodity etc. In other words, microeconomics studies economic relationships, or economic problems at the level of an individual- an individual firm, an individual household or an individual consumer. It is concerned with determination of output and price for an individual firm or industry.

In the words of Shapiro, “Microeconomics deals with small parts of the economy.”

IMPORTANCE OF MICROECONOMICS: Importance of the study of microeconomics lies in the following:

i) Operation of an Economy: Microeconomics explains the functioning of an economy. It tells whether different constituents of economy, namely, consumers, firms, etc. are functioning efficiently or not.

ii) Prediction: Predictions are made on the basis of the theories of Microeconomics. If a cause occurs then a set of results will follow. For instance, if demand increases prices are also likely to rise.

iii) Economic Policies: Study of microeconomics helps in the formation of economic policies. 

iv) Economic welfare: Microeconomics informs us of the conditions of economic welfare. Study of microeconomics suggests how the ideal of economic welfare can be achieved.

v) Mangerial Decision: Business firms make use of microeconomics to take managerial decisions. They take these decisions on the basis of cost and demand analysis.

LIMITATIONS OF MICROECONOMICS: Following are the main limitations of microeconomics: 

i) Static: In the study of microeconomics, mostly static analysis is made use of. In it many economic variables are assumed to be constant.

ii) Wrong Conclusions: The conclusions drawn from microeconomics are in many cases not valid from the point of view of macroeconomics. For example, in microeconomics, saving is a virtue so far is individual is concerned but if it is viewed from macro angle, if the entire population begins to save more than before, then there will be fall in aggregate demand leading to fall in production and employment.

iii) Unrealistic Assumptions: This economics analysis is based on many unrealistic assumptions like prevalence of full employment and perfect competition in the economy. In real life these assumptions are not found.

iv) Limited Scope: Microeconomics has limited scope, study of many important economic policies and problems like, fiscal policy, monetary policy, inflation, unemployment, etc. is outside its scope. 

Management: meaning, nature, features, characteristics

 Q. What is the meaning of Management? Explain its essential characteristics in detail. 

Ans. MEANING OF MANAGEMENT: Management can be scanned as 'Manage‐Men- T' i.e Manage - Men - Tactfully. It is the art of getting work done by others. Management refers to the process of conducting a set of functions (such as planning, organising, staffing,directing and controlling) to get the work done in an. efficient and effective manner. It also means taking care of pre-determined objectives. Its purpose is to achieve the best possible results by making use of material, labour, machine, methods, money and market with the minimum time, investment and efforts. Management brings together all six Ms i.e., Men, Money, Machines, Materials, Methods and Markets. 

According to Harold Koontz, "Management is the art of getting things done through others and with formally organised groups."

According to F.W. Taylor, "Management is the art of knowing what you want to do and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way."

According to Prof. Donald J. Clough (Prof. Clouge), "Management is the art and science of decision-making and leadership."

According to Rose Moore, "Management means decision-making."

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT: 

i) Management is a Goal-oriented Process: No goal in hand-no need of management. In other words, we need management when we have some goals to be achieved. A manager on the basis of his knowledge and experience tries to achieve the goals which are already decided. Hence, nothing is wrong to say that management is a goal-oriented process. 

ii) Management is all pervasive: Anything minus management is nothing or zero. Here, by anything we mean all types of activities—business and non-business. If we deduct management out of these activities, the result will be failure or zero. It means management is necessary to conduct any type of activities. Hence, it is pervasive or universal. [Management is pervasive in nature I.e. applicable to everywhere. It is used in business as well as non-business organisations like educational institutions, charitable trusts etc. The principles of management are applicable at all the levels, departments, employees in the organisation.]

iii) Management is multi-dimensional: Management is three dimensional activity. Or Management is a complex activity that has three main dimensions. These are:

a) Management of work: Every organisation is established for doing some work such as school provides education, hospital treat patients and factory produces goods etc. Of these, no work will be satisfactorily completed without management.

b) Management of people: Each organisation is established for doing some work and the same is conducted by people. Hence, it is necessary to manage the people so that the work can be accomplished in a better way.

c) Management of operations: To achieve the goals of an organisation many operations or activities need to be conducted, such as, production, sale, purchase, finance, accounting, R&D etc. Again, management is needed to make sure that operations are accomplished efficiently and effectively. 

iv) Management is a Continuous process: Management is not a process which can be performed once and for all, but it is a Continuous process. Functions of management like planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling Continuously need to be done. These functions are simultaneously performed by all managers all the time. A manager is busy sometimes doing one managerial activity and at the other time, some other activity. [It is a continuous process as it continues till business survives.] 

v) Management is a Group Activity: It means that it is not a single person who consummates all the activities of an organisation but it is always a group of persons (managers). Hence, management is a group effort. 

vi) Management is a Dynamic Function: Management is a dynamic function and has to adapt itself to the changing environment.

vii) Management is an Intangible Force: Management is that power which cannot be seen. It can only be felt. If any organisation is heading towards higher levels of achievement, it signifies an existence of good management and vice-versa. 

OR

(i) It is a Group Effort: As per this characteristic of management, it is not a single person who consummates (completes) the whole process of management but it is a group effort. All the managers are affected by each and every decision taken in the organisation. A task can be successfully accomplished only with the collective (group) effort. For example, a company wants expansion of its business. For the fulfilment of this objective, participation of all, i.e. marketing manager, production manager, sales manager, finance manager etc. is required. So, it is right to call management a group effort. 

(ii) It is a Goal Oriented Process: Every organisation is established for the fulfilment of one or the other objective. Management acts as a medium which facilitates in achieving these objectives. A manager on the basis of his knowledge and experience anticipates future events and plans accordingly. He not only monitors the work progress of the subordinates but also guides them. Moreover, from time to time the manger motivates his subordinates and finally, in this manner, predetermined objectives are achieved.

(iii) It has a Distinct Entity: It is not possible for an owner to perform all functions himself. In other words, it can be said that in an organisation the owner (who invests money) and a manager (who manages the organisation) can be different persons.

(iv) It is an Intangible Force: Management is a force/power which is not visible/seen. It can only be felt or realised on the basis of the success of an organisation. For example, if an organisation marches ahead on the path of progress, it will be taken as a sign of good management but if an organisation is moving towards decline, it signals unsuccessful management. Hence, management can be called an Intangible force.

(v) It is a process: A process means a definite system of functioning. Management is a process which includes the activities like planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling and it is used in efficiently utilising the human and material resources for the achievement of pre-determined objectives.

(vi) It is an Inborn and Acquired Ability: According to the Traditional Concept of Management, management ability is an inborn quality which means managers are not made but born. In other words, management ability is inborn and a person inherits it and it cannot be acquired with the help of education and training. According to Modern Concept of Management, if a person does not possess the gift of in-born management ability, it can be acquired through education in management.

(vii) It is a Universal Activity: Universality is that truth which is prevalent in every sphere (Business or non-business) and is equally applicable everywhere and management too has this quality. Every business (industrial enterprise) or non-business organisation (educational institutions, govt. offices, Army clubs and social institutes) has to make an efficient use of human and material resources in order to achieve their objectives and go through a process of planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling. In this way the management activity is the same in all the types of organisations and the same principles are applied every where. [Management is not applicable in business undertakings only. It is applicable to political, social, religious and educational institutions also.]

(viii) It is Multidisciplinary: In reality management is Multidisciplinary. It means that management is a separate subject and developed from various other disciplines. In developing itself into a separate subject, it has benefitted from various disciplines like Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, Statistics, Mathematics etc. After collecting various thoughts from disciplines, management came to develop its own thoughts and principles. The integrated knowledge of different subjects has made a valuable contribution to the subject of management. It is called The foundation of management. 

(ix) It is a Social Science: Social Science is connected with human beings. Management is a social science like other social sciences- Economics, Sociology, Political Science etc. It is related to man as a social being who is sensitive, reasoning and dynamic being. The managers accept management principles for their guidance.

(x) It is a system: Now management is being looked upon as a system. It means taking various aspects of management into consideration rather than thinking about a particular single aspect. Management lays stress upon the coordination between various activities of the organisation.

(xi) It is a Dynamic System: Management is based on certain principles which are dynamic. Principles mean some basic truth which establishes a link between cause and effect. The principles of management continue changing according to the atmosphere in which an organisation functions. Because of this Continuous change in atmosphere many old principles have been replaced by new ones. Thus, no principle can be treated as final. In this context it can be said that nothing is permanent in the field of management. Because of the fear of adverse effects of these changes a manager can anticipate them before hand. He can give such a direction to the polices and planning of his organisation as not to allow these changes to affect it.

(xii) It involves social responsibility: Today, management is looked upon as a social responsibility. A manager always takes decision in the interest of the organisation. But if a particular decision takes into consideration only the interest of organisation and ignores the interest of society, it will not only endanger the existence of organisation bur ensire its downfall. In other words, no decision of the manager is acceptable which is one sided. For example, if a top-level managers takes the decision of establishing a factory in a residential area which can possibly endanger the environment, the people will threaten the very existence of the manager and the organisation. Similarly, inferior goods, high prices and improper stocking of goods may be in the interest of the organisation but any such decision is anti-social and for this society will never forgive the business enterprise (the organisation). Thus, the functions of manager are not confined to the organisation alone, he is responsible to society also.

(xiii) It is a Profession: These days management is popular as a profession. Now nobody is made a manager in a business organisation simply because he has invested capital in it or he is related to such a person but he is appointed as manager simply because he has the requisite ability and qualifications. On this basis managers have come to be recognized as professionals like doctors, lawyers and teachers.

(xiv) It is both Science and Art: Management possesses the qualities of both science and art. Science refers to a systimatic body of knowledge which is acquired on the basis of observation and experiments and verification of this knowledge is possible. Management is called science because like science it has its own definite principles which are applied everywhere. For example, the principle of division of labour and specialisation is applied every where. This principle is based on the fact that if work is divided according to the ability and taste, and some person is given the same work repeatedly, he gains proficiency in his work performance. On the other hand, Art means a system of doing something in a disciplined or organised manner. It refers to the practical application of existing knowledge skillfully. Management is described as an art as an efficient manager tries to function in organised or systematic manner by establishing coordination between human and material resources. [Management is a science as it follows well established principles which are universally applicable. Management is a social science as it deals with people. On the other hand, management is an art as it involves getting things done through people. Art is an inborn talent and requires skill. Managers as an artist needs to be creative and should have skill to get work done through people to organisational objectives.

Communication barriers & how to overcome

 Q. What do you mean by communication barriers? Explain different types of barriers in brief.

Or
What are the barriers to communication? Give suggestions to overcome these barriers.

Ans. MEANING OF COMMUNICATION BARRIERS: Barriers basically refers to the hurdles or hindrances which obstructs the communication. By barriers, we mean hindrances or obstructions discovered from external, organizational and personal factors. These barriers to communication must be identified and removed for effective communication in an organization.

TYPES OF BARRIERS: Barriers of communication can be classified as under:
1. Semantic or Language Barriers: Semantic is the study of words or their meanings. The semantic barriers are those barriers which are related to language. The chief semantic or language related barriers are as under:

i) Wrongly Expressed Message: Because of complexity of language, there is always a possibility of wrong interpretation of the messages. This barrier is created because of the wrong choice of words, the wrong sequence of sentences and frequent repetitions. When the listener or reader draws different meanings of a word than the writer or the speaker; there arises a barrier.

ii) Faulty Translation: A manager receives much information from his superiors and subordinates and he translates it for the concerned employees acording to their level of understanding. Hence, the information has to be moulded according to the understanding of the receiver. If there is little carelessness in this process, the faulty translation can be a barrier in the communication.

iii) Unclarified assumptions: It has been observed that sometimes a sender takes it for granted that the receiver knows some basic things and therefore, it is enough to tell him about the major subject matter. This point of view of the sender is correct to some extent with reference to the daily communication, but it is absolutely wrong in case of some special message.

iv) Use of Technical Language: Some people like engineers, quality controllers, etc. do technical work. They have their separate technical language. Their communication is not so simple as to be understood by everybody. Hence, technical language can be a barrier to communication.

2. Organisational Barriers: Organizational barriers refer to obstacles that hinder the flow of communication within an organization affecting the capability of employees. Organisational structure greatly, affects the capability of employees so far as communication is concerned. Some major organisational hindrances in the way of communication are:

i) Organisational Policies: Organisational policies determine the relationship among all the persons working in the enterprise. For example, it can be the policy of the organisation that communication will be in the-written form. If this message can be expressed in a few word, it will take Iittle time. If the message is transmitted in writing it takes some time. Consequently, work gets delayed.

ii) Organisational rules: Organisational rules become barriers in communication by determining the subject-matter, medium, etc., of communication. Annoyed by the definite rules, the senders hesitate to send some of the messages.

iii) Status Relationship: In an organisation, all the employees are divided into many categories on the basis of their level. This formal division acts as a barrier in communication especially when the communication moves from the bottom to the top of the organisation.

iv) Complexity in Organisational Structure: More number of levels in an organisation results in delay in communication and information gets changed before it reaches the receiver. In other words negative things or criticisms are concealed. Thus, more the number of managerial levels in an organisation, more ineffective the communication becomes.

v) Less Organisational Facilities: Organisational facilities mean making
available sufficient stationery, telephone, translator, etc. Where these facilities are lacking in an organisation, communication will not be timely, clear and in accordance with necessity.

3. Personal Barriers: There are some barriers which are directly connected with the sender and receiver. They are called personal barriers. They have been divided into two parts:
I) Barriers related to Superiors: These barriers are as follows:

i) Attitude of Superiors: The attitude of top level superiors directly affects the flow of communication. If the attitude of superiors toward communication is unfavorable or they give no importance to communication, then it will be a barrier.

ii) Fear of Position: Everybody desires to occupy a high office/position in an organisation. In this hope, officers try to conceal their weaknesses by not communicating their ideas.

iii) Insistence (force, जिद) on Proper Channel: The top level superiors remain connected through communication with a view to getting their authority implemented. They do not like any irregularity in communication, when sometimes it is not possible to follow the proper channel of communication, particularly when the work has got to be done quickly. They consider such a situation against their authority and finally, they become a barrier in communication.

iv) Shortage of Time: The top level superiors feel that they are overburdened with excessive work and because of this they do not pay much attention to communication.

v) Lack of Attention: Sometimes top level superiors do not pay adequate
attention to the importance and utility of communication. As a result, the flow of communication gets hindered. Consequently , work performance gets delayed, and the enterprise has to face much inconvenience.

II) Barriers related to Subordinates: Subordinates related barriers are as under:

i) Unwillingness to Communicate: Sometimes the subordinates do not want to send any information to their superiors. When the subordinates feel that the information is of negative nature and will adversely affects them, an effort is made to conceal that information. If it becomes imperative to send this information, it is sent in a modified or amended form. Thus the subordinates, by not stating the facts, become a hindrance in communication.

ii) Lack of Proper Incentive: Lack of incentives to the subordinates creates a hindrance in communication. This is because of the fact that their suggestions or ideas are not given any importance. If the superiors ignore the subordinates, they become indifferent towards any exchange of ideas in future.

4. Emotional or Perceptional Barriers: The importance of communication depends on the mental condition of both the parties. A mentally disturbed party can be a hindrance in communieation. Following are the emotional barriers in the way of
communication:
i) Premature Evaluation: Sometimes the receiver of information tries to dig out meanings without much thinking at the time of receiving or even before receiving information, which can be wrong. This type of evaluation is a hindrance in the exchange of information and the enthusiasm of the sender gets dampened (reduced).

ii) Emotional Attitude: Some people are emotional by nature and lose their mental balance quickly and easily. If a superior happens to get agitated quickly, his communication, howsoever authentic it may be, remains ineffective. Similarly, if a receiver of the message is mentally upset or disturbed he will find unfavourable meaning in it.

iii) Poor Retention of Information: Poor retention of information means that with every transfer of information its reality gets reduced. According to an estimate, in oral communication there is a loss of 30% in every transfer of information. This is because of our carelessness. Hence, transfer of information being not in its actual reality is a big hindrance in communication.

5. Physical Barriers: Physical barriers are those barriers which are caused due to the faulty physical conditions. These barriers cause a lot of noise These include insufficiently insulated rooms from outside noises such as those of traffic filtering through, poor lighting, a typewriter clattering away in a nearby office and such like things as frequent movement of body posture, fiddling with a pen in the hand or even the arrival of coffee at a critical stage of an on going communication. 

Suggestions to overcome barriers to communication: It is essential to remove barriers in the way of communication keeping in view the importance of communication in a business organisation. Following steps are worth taking for the removal of barriers to communication:

i) Think about purpose and audience: The first step is to define goal in communicating. You must create a bridge of words that leads listeners or readers from their current position to your point. Before you can do this, of course, you have to know something about their current position.

(2) Tell the audience what you expect: After you have defined your readers' or listeners' needs, Let them know the purpose of the message (thus helping them recognize the relationship among the ideas you hope to convey), and tell them what main points they will encounter on the way (so that they can organize them into a rational framework). Even if you do not want to reveal controversial ideas at the beginning of the message, you can still give receivers a preview of the topics you plan to cover.

(3) Use of easy language: The language used in the communication should be simple, understandable and of the level of the receiver. The best way to do this is to balance the general concepts with specific illustrations. At the beginning, state the overall idea; then develop that idea by using vivid, concrete (real) examples. The most momorable words are the ones that create a picture in the receiver's mind by describing colors, objects, scents sounds and tastes. Specific details can also be very vivid (life like).

(4) Stick to the point: You can also help your audience by eliminating any information that does not directly contribute to your purpose. Many business messages contain too much material. But most receivers do not need everything. All they need are a few pertinent facts, enough information to answer their questions or facilitate their decisions by eliminating unnecessary ideas, you focus the other person's thoughts on those few points that really matter.

(5) Connect new information to existing ideas: By showing the audience how new ideas relate to familiar ones, you increase the likelihood that your message will be understood correctly. The meaning of the new concept is clarified by its relationship to the old. The receiver already has a wealth of information on the subject; all she or he has to do is apply it to the new idea.

Most of us approach anything unfamiliar with caution. When we discover that it is similar to something familiar, we become more confident. We accept this new idea and work on it more carefully.

(6) Emphasize and review key points: Call attention is the most important points of the message. You can do this with your words, your format and your body language. Underscore key points by calling attention to them visually. Use headlines, body type, and intended lists to emphasize major ideas. Re-inforce the text of your message by using charts, graphs, maps, diagrams and illustrations. If you are delivering the message orally, use your body and voice to highlight important concepts.

Before you conclude your message, review one or two of its essential points. Restate the purpose and then show how the main ideas relate to it.

It is a good idea to provide summaries at the end of major sections of a long message as well as at the end of a document or presentation. Such summaries not only refresh people's memories but also help simplify the overall meaning of complex material.

(7) Minimize noise: To the extent possible, you should try to eliminate potential sources of interference that stand between you and your audience. The key to getting through to the receiver often lies in the choice of communication channels and media. You should choose the method that will most likely attract the receiver's attention and enable him or her to concentrate on the message.

(8) Physically appealing written document: A written document seems the best choice, try to make it physically appealing and easy to comprehend. Use an attractive, convenient format and pay attention to such details as the choice of paper and quality of type. If possible, deliver the document when you know the reader will have time to study it.

(9) Eliminate environmental competition: If the message is to be delivered orally try to minimise environmental difficulties. The location should be comfortable and quiet with sufficient lighting and good sound system. Your own personality should be attractive to the audience to influence them. The more people who interfere in your message, the greater are the chances of its getting distorted. Thus, oral messages should have least interference on the part of the people.

(10) Facilitate feedback: Give the receiver a chance to provide feedback. If you are talking face-to-face with other person, feedback is immediate and clear. But if you are writing a letter, memo or report that will be read by several people, feedback will be delayed and mixed. Choose a form of communication that suits your needs. Some channels and media are more compatible with feedback than others. For example, if you want to send our message quickly, you must talk to the receiver face-to-face or by phone. If feedback is less important to you, you can use a written document or give a prepared speech.

In short, business communication is especially prone to misunderstandings because the message is complex, conditions are difficult and psychological or social differences often separate the sender and receiver. To overcome communication barriers, think about your audience, let them know what to expect, use vivid language, stick to the point that connects new ideas to familiar ones, emphasize and review key points, minimize noise, and provide opportunities for feedback.

meaning, characteristics and uses of accounting

 Q. Define Accounting. Explain the characteristics and uses of accounting.

Ans. MEANING OF ACCOUNTING: Accounting is the art of recording, classifying, summarising and communicating financial information to users for correct decision making. It gives information on:
(i) resources available
(ii) how the available resources have been employed
(iii) the results achieved by their use.
Since accounting is a medium of communication, it is called The language of business. 

DEFINITION OF ACCOUNTING: According to American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (A.I.C.P.A.), “Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarising in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part atleast, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACCOUNTING: Following are the characteristics of accounting:
i) Accounting is an art as well as science: Art is the technique of attaining some pre-determined objectives. Accounting is an art of recording, classifying and summarising business transactions with a view to ascertain the net profit and financial position of the business enterprise.
        Any organised body of knowledge which is based on certain specified principles is called science. In this respect accounting is also a science since it is also an organised body of knowledge based on certain specified principles and accounting standards.

ii) Recording of Transaction of financial character: Only those transactions and events are recorded which are of a financial character and which can be expressed in terms of money. Hence, accounting involves the identifying of transactions and events that are considered of financial character and relate to the enterprise.

iii) Recording in terms of money: Each transaction is recorded in the books in terms of money only. For example, if business possesses ₹50,000 in Cash; Land measuring 2,000 metres; 5 trucks; 5 machines; 10 ton of raw materials; and so on. These cannot be added up and hence cannot give any useful information. But if they are expressed in terms of money, they will provide useful information such as, Cash ₹50,000; Land ₹2 crore; Trucks ₹50,00,000; Machines ₹20,00,000.

iv) Classifying: After recording the transactions in the books of accounts, the transactions are classified. Classification is the process of grouping the transactions of one nature at one place in a separate account. The book in which various accounts are opened is called ledger.

v) Summarising: Summarising is the art of presenting the classified data in a manner which is understandable and useful to management and other users of such data. This involves the balancing the ledgers and the preparation of trial balance and financial statements.

vi) Interpreting the results: Interpreting refers to explaining the results of business in such a manner that interested parties can make a meaningful Judgement (can have a full information) about profitability and financial position of the business.

vii) Communicating: It refers to transmission of summarised and interpreted information to the users who have an interest in the business enterprise to enable them to make reasoned decisions.

USES OF ACCOUNTING: Accounting is useful in following ways:
i) Useful in Management of Business: Management needs a lot of
information for the efficient running of the business. All such information is provided
by the accounting which helps the management in planning, decision making and controlling. For example management would like to know whether the sales are
increasing or decreasing and also the speed of increase in the cost of production. All such information is provided by the accounting, which helps the management in estimating the future sales and expenses. 

ii) Provides Complete and Systematic Record : Business transactions have grown in size and complexity and it is not possible to remember each and every transaction. Accounting keeps a prompt and systematic record of all the transactions and summarizes them in order to provide a true picture of the activities of the business entity.

iii) Information Regarding Profit or Loss : Accounting reports the net result of business activities of an accounting period. The Profit & Loss Account prepared at
the end of each accounting period discloses the net profit earned or loss suffered during that period. The information regarding profit is of great use to the owners and various other interested parties.

iv) Information Regarding Financial Position: Accounting reports the
financial position of the business by preparing a Balance Sheet at the end of each accounting period.

v) Evidence in Legal matters: Properly maintained accounts, supported by authenticated documents are accepted by the courts as a firm evidence.

vi) Facilitates Comparative Study: By keeping a systematic record, accounting helps the owners to compare one year's costs, expenses, sales and profit etc. with those of other years. Such a comparison provides the useful informations on the basis of which important decisions can be taken more judiciously.

vii) Facilitates in Assessment of Tax Liability: Properly maintained records will be of great help when the firm is assessed to income tax or sales tax. Such records
when audited are trusted by the taxation authorities.

viii) Facilitates Sale of Business: If a business entity is being sold, the
accounting information can be utilised to determine the proper purchase price.

ix) Helpful in Raising Loans: Accounting information is of great help while
raising loans from banks or other financial institutions. Such institutions before
sanctioning loan screen various financial statements of the firm such as final accounts, fund flow statement, cash flow statement etc.

x) Helpful in Prevention and Detection of Errors and Frauds.  

Sitaar aur uske bhaag ya ang

 प्र. सितार के भाग व बजाने की विधि लिखें।

या 

 सितार के भाग व तार को मिलाने की विधि लिखें।

सितार और उसके अंग 

उ. उत्तर भारतीय संगीत में सितार काफी लोकप्रिय है। पाश्-चन्य देशो में भी इसका प्रचार धीरे-धीरे बढ़ रहा है। इसकी मधुरता शीघ्र ही श्रोताओ को अपनी ओर आकर्षित कर लेती है। पं. रविशंकर जी ने पाश्-चन्य देशो में सितार को खूब लोकप्रिय बनाया। 

सितार के आविष्कार के विषय में अनेक मतभेद है। कुछ लोग अमीर खुसरो के द्वारा इसका आविष्कार मानते है। कहते है कि सहतार नामक वाद्-य जिसके तीन तार होते थे, के आधार पर सितार का आविष्कार किया गया। 

(सितार की बनावट को समझने के लिए इसके अंगो पर विचार करना आवश्यक है।)X

Sitaar aur uske bhaag ya ang

सितार के अंग 

1) तूम्बा:- सितार का नीचे का भाग का गोलाकार भाग जो लौकी या कद्-दू जैसा बना होता है। इससे सितार की आवाज में गूंज पैदा होती है। 

2) तबली:- तूंबा का थोड़ा भाग काटकर उसे पतली लकड़ी से ढक दिया जाता है। इसे तबली कहते है। 

3) घुड़च: इसी तबली पर घुड़च की तारे अटकी रहती है। इसे Bride भी कहते है।) तबली के ऊपर लकड़ी या हाथी के दाँत की चांकी टिकी रहती है। जिस पर सितार की तारे रखी जाती है। इसे घुड़च कहते है। 

4) कील: तूम्बे के निचले सिरे पर लकड़ी या हड्-डी की कील लगाते है। इस कील से तारे बंधी होती है।

5) डांड: सितार के तूंबे से लकड़ी की खोखली डांड जुड़ी होती है। जिस पर सितार के पर्दे बांधे जाते है। 

6) गुलू: यह वह स्थान है जहाँ तूंबा और डांड जुड़ते है।

7) मनका: सितार की बाज की तार में कील और घुड़च के बीच में जो मोती पिरोया जाता है उसको मनका कहते है। 

8) परदे: सितार के डांड के ऊपर पीतल अथवा जर्मन सिल्वर के अर्ध चन्द्रकार टुकड़े ताँत द्वारा बाँधे जाते है। इनकी संख्या 16 से 19 के बीच होती है। इन्हें पर्दे कहते है। 

9) तारगहन: खूँटियों के पास हाथी दाँत की पट्टियां लगी रहती है। जिस पट्टी में तारों को पिरोया जाता है। उसे तारगहन कहते है। 

10) अट्-टी/अट्टी: तारगहन के पास दूसरी पट्-टी/पट्टी जिस पर से तार रखे जाते है। अट्टी कहलाती है। 

11)  खूँटिया: डाँड के ऊपरी भाग में सात बड़ी खूँटिया लगी होती है। जिनसे सात तारों को बाँधा जाता है। खूँटियों को कस कर या ढीला कर के ही तारो को स्वर में लाया जाता है।

सितार की वादन शैली 

सितार बजाते समय सितार को इस प्रकार रखा जाता है कि सितार का पिछला हिस्सा वादक की तरफ रहे। दाँए हाथ को तूँबे के पास डाँड के ऊपर रखा जाता है। तथा पहली ऊँगली में मिजराफ पहन कर दिर, दा, रा, द्रा आदि बोल निकाले जाते हैं। 

1) दा- जब मिजराफ बाहर से लाते हुए तार पर प्रहार करते है और ऊँगली अपनी ओर खींच लेते है तो दा का बोल निकलता है। 

2) रा- इसके विपरीत जब तार पर आघात करते हुए ऊँगली अंदर से बाहर जाती है तो रा का बोल निकलता है।

3) दिर- शीघ्रता (तेजी) से दा,रा बजाने को दिर का बोल निकलता है।

4) दार- दा बजाने के बाद रा का आधा समय छोड़ देने पर शेष आधे समय में र बजाने पर दार का बोल निकलता है।

बाएं हाथ को डाँड पर इस प्रकार रखा जाता है कि उंगलियाँ पर्दे पर रहती है तथा अंगूठा डाँड के पीछे रहता है। 

    स्वर निकालने के लिए मिजराफ से बारे को छोड़ने के साथ ही पर्दे पर तार को दबाया जाता है। जिससे स्वर उत्पन्न होता है।

Sitaar aur uske bhaag ya ang

Sangeet Ratnakar

 संगीत रत्नाकर 

संगीत रत्नाकर भारतीय संगीत का प्राचीन एवं प्रसिद्ध ग्रंथ है। यह ग्रंथ उत्तरी और दक्षिणी संगीत पद्धति का आधार ग्रंथ माना जाता है। इस ग्रंथ को पं. शारंग देव जी ने सात भागों में विभाजित किया है। सात अध्याय इस प्रकार है-

1. स्वर अध्याय 

2. विवेका अध्याय 

3. प्रकीर्णध्याय

4. प्रबन्धाध्याय

5. तालाध्याय

6. वाद्याध्याय

7. नृत्याध्याय

1. ग्रंथ परिचय: पं. शारंग देव ने अपने ग्रंथ में सदाशिव-पार्वती, भरत, मतंग आदि ग्रंथकारो का उल्लेख किया है।

2. संगीत लक्ष्ण: इस ग्रंथ में संगीत दो भेद मार्गी और देशी जाने जाते हैं।  

3. नाद: पं. शारंग देव जी गीत, वाद्य और नृत्य को नादात्मक मानते है। नाद से वर्ण, वर्ण से पद, और पद से वाक्य बनते है।नाद के दो भेद है- आहत नाद और अनाहत नाद।

4. श्रुति: इन्होंने 22 श्रुतियाँ मानी है और 22 श्रुतियों को प्रभावित करने के लिए श्रुति साधना सरंचना का विवरण दिया है। 

5. स्वर: स्वर की परिभाषा में शारंग देव जी लिखते हैं कि श्रुति के बाद उत्पन्न होने वाले रंजक नाद स्वर कहलाता है। 22 श्रुतियों पर 7 शुद्ध स्वर माने हैं और 12 विकृत स्वरों को मिलाकर 19 स्वर माने है। 

6. वादी, संवादी, विवादी और अनुवादी: जिस स्वर का राग में बहुत प्रयोग होता है, उसे वादी स्वर।  जिस स्वर का प्रयोग वादी से थोड़ा कम हो वह संवादी स्वर। जिस स्वर का प्रयोग उसके अतिरिक्त हो उन्हें अनुवादी स्वर तथा जिस स्वर का प्रयोग राग में वर्जित हो उसे विवादी स्वर कहते है। 

7. ग्राम: ग्राम की परिभाषा में पंडित शारंग देव जी लिखते हैं कि मूर्च्छना का आधार स्वर ग्राम कहलाता है। यह तीन प्रकार के है-

1. षडज ग्राम

2. मध्यम ग्राम

3. गंधार ग्राम

8. मूर्च्छना: सात स्वरों के क्रमानुसार आरोह-अवरोह करने को मूर्च्छना कहते है। षडज और मध्यम ग्राम की सात-सात मूर्च्छनाएँ मानी। 

9. वर्ण: गाने की क्रिया को वर्ण कहते है। यह चार प्रकार के होते है:- 

1. स्थाई वर्ण 

2. आरोही वर्ण 

3. अवरोही वर्ण 

4. संचारी वर्ण

10. अलंकार: पंडित जी विशेष वर्ण समुद्र को अलंकार कहते है। उनके अनुसार अलंकार का प्रयोग गायन वादन में रंजकता बढ़ाता है। और स्वरो की सही स्थिति का ज्ञान करवाता है। 

11. थाट: शारंग देव जी ने शुद्ध थाट काफी माना है परंतु आजकल शुद्ध थाट बिलावल है।

12. जाति लक्षण: इन्होंने भरत द्वारा निर्धारित 10 लक्षणों में सन्यास, विन्यास, अंतर मार्ग को जोड़कर जाति के 13 लक्षण माने। जैसे: ग्रह, अंश, न्यास, आदि।

13. वाद्य: पंडित जी ने वाद्यों को उनके उपयोग के अनुसार चार भागों में बांटा है-

i) तत्वाद्य

ii) सुषि वाद्य

iii) अवनद वाद्य

iv) धन वाद्य 

14. ताल: इस अध्याय में पंडित ने उस समय की प्रचलित तालों के बारे में बताया है। इन सभी तालों को प्रभु के लिए गाने वाले मार्गी और देशी तालो मे विभाजित किया है। 

वास्तव में पं. शारंगदेव जी ने संगीत रत्नाकर की रचना करके एक अद्भुत कार्य किया है।

संगीत पारिजात Sangeet Parijat

 संगीत परिजात Sangeet Parijat 

‘संगीत परिजात’ ग्रंथ 1650 पंडित अहोबल जी द्+वारा लिखा गया जिसका अनुवाद फारसी में पं. दीनानाथ ने 1924 में किया। यह ग्रंथ 17वीं शताब्दी का महान ग्रंथ माना जाता है। पंडित अहोबल जी पहले संगीतकार थे जिन्होंने संगीत परिजात में वर्ण पर स्वर स्थापना निश्-चित करने के लिए एक नई पद्धति बनाई। 

ग्रंथ मंगला चरण से शुरू होता है। इसमे कुल 8 अध्याय हैं:- स्वर, ग्राम, मूर्च्छना, स्वर विस्तार, वर्ण, जाति, समय और राग प्रकरण। संगीत परिजात में कुल 500 श्लोक हैं। 8 अध्याय इस प्रकार है:

1. स्वर अध्याय- इस अध्याय में नाद की उत्पत्ति और उसके दो भेदों के बारे में बताया है। स्वर और श्रुति में स्वर को साँप और उसकी कुंडली को श्रुति बताया गया है। 22 श्रुतियों को 5 भागो में बाँटा  गया है। स्वरों, रागो और रसों के बारे में बताया गया है।

2. ग्राम अध्याय: पंडित अहोबल जी ने अपने ग्रंथ में लिखा है- स्वरो का समूह ही ग्राम कहलाता है। यह मूर्च्छना का आधार होता है। उन्होंने 3 ग्राम बताए है:-

i) षड्ज ग्राम 

ii) मध्यम ग्राम 

iii) गन्धार ग्राम 

षड्ज ग्राम को सबसे उत्तम माना है। राग दो ग्रामों पर षड्ज और मध्यम पर आश्रित है। गन्धार के बारे में वह स्वर्ग लोक में ग्राम होता है।

3. मूर्च्छना अध्याय: मूर्च्छना के बारे में पंडित अहोबल जो लिखते है जब ग्राम के स्वरों में आरोह-अवरोह किया जाए तो उसे मूर्च्छना कहते है। मूर्च्छना ग्राम पर आधारित है। उस समय ग्राम ही प्रचार में थे। हर  ग्राम की सात-सात मूर्च्छनाएँ होती है।

4. स्वर विस्तार अध्याय: इस अध्याय में स्वर की परिभाषा इस प्रकार लिखते है "जो अपने आप ही सुनने वाले के चित्त को आकर्षित करते हैं, वे स्वर कहलाते है।" पंडित जी स्वर के दो भेद मानते हैं:- शुद्ध और विकृत। रागों में प्रत्यक्ष रूप से 12 विकृत स्वर माने है।

5. जाति अध्याय: इस अध्याय में सात शुद्ध जातियाँ षडजा, गन्धारी, मध्यमा, पंचम, धैवती, निषादी का परिचय दिया गया है। इसमे गमक के बारे में भी बताया/समझाया गया है।

6. समय अध्याय: इस अध्याय में पंडित जी ने वीणा पर स्वरों की स्थापना के बारे में बताया है। पंडित जी ने अपने समय के लोकप्रिय रागों के गायन का समय भी लिखा है जैसे रागतोड़ी का गायन समय दिन का पहला प्रहार है। भैरवी राग हर समय गाया जा सकता है। 

7. राग अध्याय: इस अध्याय में लिखते है कि राग तो बहुत से गाए हैं पर मैंने 125 रागो का वर्णन किया है। आपने वादी, सम्वादी, अनुवादी और विवादी स्वरों की भी परिभाषा दी है। वे आधुनिक परिभाषा के समान है।

8. वर्ण अध्याय: इस अध्याय में पंडित जी कहते है कि गायन की क्रिया को वर्ण कहते है। यह 4 प्रकार के है: स्थाई, आरोही, अवरोही, संचारी।

अलंकार के बारे में भी वर्णन किया है। इन्हीं अलंकारों से राग सजाए जाते है। 

सारांश: ये ग्रंथ आधुनिक संगीत से बहुत संबंध रखता है इसलिए पंडित जी को इस अनमोल भेंट को संगीत जगत कभी भी भूला नहीं सकता।

उस्ताद मुश्ताक अली ख़ान ustad Mushtaq Ali khan

 उस्ताद मुश्ताक अली ख़ान ustad Mushtaq Ali khan (सितार वादक)

मुश्ताक अली खाँ का जन्म 20 जून 1911 को बनारस में प्रसिद्ध सितार वादक आशिक अली जी के घर हुआ। 

वंश परंपरा:  इनका संबंध एक प्रसिद्ध संगीत घराने से है। घराने की परंपरा सेनिया घराने से जा मिलती है। वारिस अली खाँ (वीण कार) अकबर अली खाँ (टप्पा गायक), निसार अलि खाँ (गायक) जैसे कलाकार इनके पूर्वज थे। यह सभी कलाकार सम्राट बहादुर शाह के साथ बनारस तक आए थे और फिर वहीं रहने लगे तभी से इनका परिचय बनारस का कहलाता है। 

संगीत शिक्षा: संगीत की प्रारंभिक शिक्षा आपको अपने पिता उस्ताद आशिक अली खाँ से मिली जो प्रसिद्ध सितार वादक थे। अभी आप 15-16 वर्ष के ही थे। सितार बजाने में आपनै खूब प्रसिद्धि प्राप्त की, सुरबहार बजाने में भी आप प्रवीण थे। 

वादन शैली: 

1. आप जी की वादन शैली का एक अलग ही रंग था। आप जी की वादन शैली आप जी की पिता जी के वादन शैली के समान थी।

2. आप द्रुतगत का प्रयोग अधिक करते थे, विलम्बित गत का प्रयोग कम करते थे।

3. सबसे पहले आप जौनपुर में दरबारी संगीतकार नियुक्त हुए। तथा कुछ ही समय बाद आप जी ने अपना स्वतंत्र रूप में अपना व्यवसाय शुरू कर दिया। 

4. 1969 में आप ने ऑल इंडिया रेडियो से सितार बजाया। और फिर 1940-50 के बीच में आपका नाम बहुत रोशन हुआ।

5. आप को 1968 में संगीत नाटक अकादमी पुरस्कार मिला। 

6. इनके शिष्यों में निर्मल गुहा, निताई बाँस, शिप्रा चौधरी, डॉ. देबू  चौधरी के नाम विशेष हैं। 

7. आप हिन्दुस्तान के इकलौते सुर बहार वादक हुए जिन्होंने बिना अंग को प्रयोग तथा तीन मिज़राब के साथ किया वो भी पखावज, परंगत, द्रुपद अंग में बजाते थे। 

देहांत: मुश्ताक अली खाँ और उनकी बेगम खनीज खातुन ने भारतीय संगीत को आगे बढ़ाने के लिए खूब मेहनत की। भारतीय संगीत की सेवा करते हुए आप अंत में 21 जुलाई 1989 को स्वर्ग सिधार गए।

उस्ताद इनायत ख़ान ustad Inayat khan

 ustad Inayat khan उस्ताद इनायत ख़ान (सितार वादक)

जन्म एवं शिक्षा: प्रसिद्ध सितार वादक उस्ताद इनायत ख़ान का जन्म 16 जून 1895 को इटावा में हुआ था।आपके पिता इमदाद खाँ एक अच्छे सितार वादक थे। इनायत खाँ अपने पिता के साथ काफी समय इंदौर दरबार में रहे और वहीं पिता द्-वारा आपको सितार की शिक्षा मिली। और अपने भाई वहीद खाँ से सुरबहार (instrument) सीखा। 

नियुक्त: पिता के देहांत के बाद आप कलकत्ता आ गए और वहाँ गौरीपुर रियासत में आपको सम्मान से नियुक्त किया गया।

संगीत जगत को देन: 

1. वादन शैली: इनके सितार वादन में अनोखापन था और वह भाव था। सितार के आलाप अंग पर आप विशेष जोर देते थे। उस समय आपकी कलाकारी के कारण  सितार  वादन बहुत लोकप्रिय हुआ और इनकी वादन शैली भी सफलता के शिखर पर पहुँची क्योंकि इससे पहले 1 सितार वादन की स्वतंत्र वादन शैली कायम नहीं थी।

1. आपने कलकत्ता में अपने अनेकों शिष्यों को अपनी वादन शैली में निपुण किया। इस प्रकार इनकी वादन शैली को बहुत सम्मान दिया।

2. आपने सितार पर बजाई जाने वाली अनेक रचनाएँ बनाई। 

3. आपके वादन में मिज़राब के बोल अलग प्रकार के थे।

4. आप रागो में विवाद स्वर का प्रयोग खूब करते थे।

5. आपके सितार वादन में स्वर, लय, और ताल का विशिष्ट काम था।

6. आपके घराने में जोड़ आलाप और ताल प्रधान है।

7. आप सुर बहार भी बजाते थे। इन्होंने कई जगह सुर बहार व सितार वादन का प्रदर्शन किया।

8. इनके शिष्य नक्षत्रों की भांति देश में अपनी चमक फैला रहे हैं। 

i) विलायत खाँ

ii) इमरत खाँ

9. आपको इंग्लैंड की महारानी एलिजाबेथ ने सितार वादन के लिए इंग्लैंड में बुलाया था। 

10. राग बिहाग, मालकौंस, बागेश्वरी आदि आपके प्रिय राग थे।

संगीत के क्षेत्र में यह आपका ऐसा योगदान है जिसे संगीत जगत भुला नहीं सकता।

10 नवंबर 1938 को इनका देहांत हो गया। 

Soot sut सूत definition in music in hindi

 सूत 

यह क्रिया बिना पर्दे के तारों वाले साजों में प्रयोग की जाती है, जो मिज़राब या गज से बजाए जाते है। जैसे सारंगी,सरोद आदि। इन साजों में मींड का काम दिखाना सूत कहलाता है। बांए हाथ की उंगली से तार को दबा कर दांए हाथ से आवाज को बिना तोड़ते हुए बजाना होता है। इस की लय मध्य होती है।

Ghaseet घसीट definition in music in hindi

 Ghaseet घसीट 

घसीट का अर्थ है तार पर उंगली को घसीटना। सितार पर घसीट का काम ज्यादा दिखाया जाता है। सितार वादन में किसी एक स्वर से दूसरे स्वर तक, मिज़राब के एक ही प्रहार से, बीच वाले स्वरों को स्पर्श करते हुए शीघ्रता से उंगली को घसीटते हुए ले जाने को घसीट कहते है। इस क्रिया में पहला स्वर और अंत वाला स्वर स्पष्ट सुनाई देता है। यह ध्वनि कानों को बहुत अच्छी लगती है। 

इस क्रिया का प्रयोग गज से बजाने वाले साजों पर भी किया जाता है। जैसे: सारंगी, इसराज आदि। इस साजों में मींड को ही  सूत या घसीट कहते हैं।