Personality Definition and Theories

 Q. Define Personality. Explain the various theories of personality.

Ans. Meaning of Personality: Personality refers to that role which a person displays to the public. It combines both the psychological and physical aspects with the help of which one comes to have a special adjustment to the circumstances. It is only on the basis of personality that a person appears to be different from the other members of the group. 

In the organisational behaviour human behaviour is primarily the focus of study and personality happens to be an important aspect of human behaviour. It is, therefore, important for the managers to study personality so that they are able to control the behaviour of their subordinates. 

Definition of Personality: 

(i) According to Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organisation with the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determime his unique adjustments to his environment.”

(ii) According to Valentine, “Personality is the sum total of innate and acquired disposition.”

(iii) According to Burges, “Personality is an individual’s unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts and feelings.”

Theories of Personality: The following are the leading theories of personality:

● I. Psycho-Analytical Theory: This theory of personality was propounded by Sigmund Freud. In order to establish his theory, Freud divided the mind of a human being into three parts, i.e., conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious. Apart from this, he brought out the fact that the following three factors play an important role in the formation of personality. 

(1) Id: Id represents the unconscious mind of a human being. Its chief characteristic is that it wants immediate satisfaction of the desires in the unconscious mind of a person. It is a sort of metal agency which happens to be present in a human being right from his birth. According to Freud it happens to be a store house of innumerable rumnants of the memory of various ancestors. It does not bother about the consequences of its actions. That is perhaps the reason that the moment some tension is built-up his/her Id makes efforts to get rid of it. In order to get rid of tension Id makes use of one of the following two methods:

(a) Primary Process: According to this process, a person makes/forms a mental picture of the thing that he/She desires. With this effort a person gets rid of tension but this is short-lived. For example, a person happens to be hungry and if he happens to create a picture of his/her favourite food in his/her mind, he/she will get rid of tension at least for some time but he/she will not be satisfied.

(b) Reflex Action: Under it, a person behaves in a manner as to show that he/she happens to be tension-free. Here a person makes use of the inherited behaviour pattern, e.g., by showing his satisfaction by sneezing, coughing or batking eye-lids. 

Although both the above mentioned methods can make a person tension-free temporarily but they cannot restore him to a state of tranquility or comfort. To get rid of tension the actual or the real thing is required and not its shadow or reflection. 

(2) Ego: At the time of birth an infant has only Id in its mind. As it comes in contact with the outward environment, its Id starts getting affected. Consequently, another part of human mind develops which is called Ego. Ego is created because of Id and it fulfils the objectives of Id very intelligently. On the one hand, the mental pictures of the desires falling under Id are created, and are considered to be everything, and the person likes to fulfill his desires unmindful of their being right or wrong. On the other hand, a person makes use of knowledge or intelligence under Ego. He starts making use of language and thinking and makes efforts to control his uncontrolled impulses. Now he starts making a distinction between a mental picture and a reality. In order to satisfy his images he starts finding his real things rather than their mental images. A hungry man would no longer create mental images of his favourite food, but he has started understanding that mental images of food do not fill his stomach. What is required is the real food and not its images. Hence, it can be observed that Ego works on the Principle of Reality and it will not be wrong to describe it as the Executive Officer of personality.

(3) Super Ego: Super Ego is a step ahead of Ego. Under ‘Id’ nobody pays attention to reality while ‘Ego’ is based on the Principle of Reality and under ‘Super Ego’ morality gets attached with reality. It can be said that Super Ego is absolutely opposite of Id. Super Ego represents the standard norms of society. It is an important factor of personality. When a child starts making a distinction between the right and the wrong and understands the difference between the moral and the immoral, the emergence of Super Ego starts appearing. It guides an individual to behave in a good manner in a society. In the above example, a hungry man gets satisfied with the mental picture of food (this is Id), then he starts understanding the difference between the mental picture and the reality (this is Ego) and now he starts realising that he happens to be vegetarian and would not accept non-vegetarian food under any condition (This is Super Ego). It is the basic quality or thinking of Super Ego that what is done should be of the highest quality. 

The theory of Freud can be understood, in a way of conclusion, that whereas Id happily tries to find out, while Ego tries to find our reality and the Super Ego tries to find out the best.

● II. Neo-Freudian Theory: Sigmund Freud developed psycho-analytical theory of personality. Some of his contemporary theorists, too, helped in advancing the thoughts of Freud. The prominent scholars included the names like Sullivan, Erikson and Horney. The ideas advanced by all these three thinkers regarding personality came to be called Neo-Freudian concept.

Sullivan laid a specific stress on the social and cultural aspects. He believed that an individual remains in perpetual contact with the social and cultural factors right since his childhood. These factors produce some kind of action and reaction. This ultimately leads to the formation of personality of an individual. It goes a long way in determining individual behaviour. It can, therefore, be said that personality is finally shaped and moulded by interpersonal behaviour.

Erikson feels that an ideal personality can be developed by making adjustment with the changing social background. 

Horney feels that concern for future happens to be a decidedly important factor in the formation of personality.

● III. Trait Theory: It has been generally observed that different people behave differently. This is because of the traits present in them which, too, happens to be different. The variety of traits is primarily responsible for giving people their separate identity. Modern psychologists feel that these traits perform the job of forming personality. It should include only those specialities which reflect themselves in different situations in their actual context. As per personality related traits, two important theories are: 

(1) Allport Trait Theory: Allport propounded this theory. He has taken the traits of personality as its base. According to this theory, the traits of people have been divided in the following two parts:

(i) Common Traits: Common traits means those traits which are commonly found in all the people of same category. Therefore, on theor basis the different people can be compared with each other. Dominance is a good example of common traits. It can be said that the dominance of one person is more than the other.

(ii) Personal Disposition: Personal Disposition means those traits which are limited to a person of a particular group or category. It obviously means that they are not found in all the people. That is the reason that there can be no comparison among different people on the basis of those traits. A comparative study of an individual can be made from different angles on the basis of personal disposition. If we say that Mr. Ankit is more active and less inactive, then it would be an example of personal disposition. Allport in his personal trait theory has laid more stress on personal disposition than common traits. He has pointed out 18000 personal disposition. Personal dispositions can be divided into following three parts:

(a) Cardinal Disposition: This is an individual trait which cannot be kept hidden. This trait is not present in all the people, but those who possess it, it becomes a base for their being widely discussed. The unshakable faith of Mahatma Gandhi in the principle of non-violence is an example of this very trait. 

(b) Central Disposition: These traits are almost found in all the people. They are nearly 5 to 10 in number, e.g., sociability, depression, self-confidence, etc. 

(c) Secondary Disposition: These traits are those traits which are less important and less consistent, e.g. hairstyle, eating habits, dress, etc. These are the traits which do not help in understanding personality. 

(2) Catell’s Trait Theory: After Allport’s trait theory of personality, Catell’s contribution is equally important. Catell took up the process of discovering those traits which go to influence personality. He took up 4500 trait out of a total of 18,000 which are pointed out by Allport. Later on this figure fell to 200 and finally it was reduced to 35. Catell has divided the traits of personality in the following two parts:

(i) Surface Traits: Surface traits refers to those traits which can be easily observed in the day to day behaviour of an individual. They are more clear and there cannot be any difference of opinion about them. For example, integrity, cheerfulness, altruism, etc. 

(ii) Source Traits: According to Catell, source traits play an important part in the formation of personality. Their number happens to be less than surface traits. Unlike the surface traits, these traits do not get reflected in the day to day behaviour of a person. According to Catell, there are 23 source traits which are found in normal individuals, while there are 12 source traits which are present only in abnormal people. Source traits are also of two types, I.e., Environmental Mold Traits and Constitutional Traits. The environmental mold traits are mostly affected by the environmental factors while constitutional traits are influenced by the heredity. 

In short, it can be said that according to Catell the source traits have an important contribution in the formation of personality.

● IV. Personality Type Theory: Personality Type Theory is the oldest theory. According to this theory, individuals can we placed in different categories on the basis of their special traits. All the people belonging to a particular category have similar traits. It means that all have a similar personality. Therefore, it can be said that there can be various types of personality. The personality type theory has been presented by Sheldon and Karljung. They are the following:

(1) Sheldon’s Personality Theory: In the year 1940, Sheldon presented his Personality Type Theory on the basis of physical formation. He studied 4,000 students in order to determine the type of personality based on the physical formation. He divided personality into the following three parts:

(i) Endomorph: In this category of personality, the people are short statured and fat. Their body is of round shape. According to Sheldon, these people are jovial, social, enjoy taking rest, and show great interest in eatables. These people are popular with others.

(ii) Mesomorph: People belonging to this type of personality, are attractively built. Their main traits happen to be assertion and aggressiveness. These people enjoy giving commands to others. 

(iii) Ectomorph: People belonging to this type of personality are lean and thin and have a good height. Physically they are not fully developed. These people like loneliness and do not want to meet people freely. They are shy by nature and they suffer from some problems with their sleep.

(2) Karljung’s Personality Theory: Karljung has made a mention of the following two types of personality.

(i) Extrovert: These people have following traits: 

● Interested in social activities.

● Like meeting people. 

● Be always happy and cheerful.

● They are of optimistic nature.

● They believe in realism.

● They are useful for society.

● They are interested in eating and drinking.

(ii) Introvert: These people possess the traits which happen to be opposite of the traits of people who are extrovert. Their chief traits are the following.  

● Not interested in social activities.

● Like living alone.

● Be always uneasy.

● Conservative by nature. 

● They are self centered.

● They do not like consulting other people.

● Ungenial behaviour.

● V. Social Learning Theory: This theory is the outcome of the research work conducted by Albert Bandura. He has given more importance to the social factors than the physical factors in the formation of personality. He supported the social learning theory on the basis of various experiments. In one of his experiments, Bandura showed a film to some children. In this film the behaviour of an adult was shown. The film had been divided into three parts. Every child was shown only one part of the film. In the first part of the film the hero displayed an aggressive behaviour and he is punished for it. In the second part of the film again the hero behaves aggressively for which he was rewarded. In the final part of the film, the hero again displayed an aggressive behaviour and at this stage, he was neither punished, nor rewarded. After showing the film every child was placed in similar conditions about which they were shown in the film. Then their behaviour was studied. It was found that children ignored that behaviour of the hero where he was punished for his aggressive behaviour. It makes it clear that a person learns from social factors and the same learning becomes helpful in the formation of his personality.

● VI. Need Theory: Need Theory of personality is propounded by Henry Murray. According to this theory, it is because of the need of the individual that he behaves in a particular way under particular circumstances. Needs create a situation of disequilibrium within an individual. Behaviour of an individual is very much influenced by the disequilibrium so developed in him. In other words, an individual feels lacking in something, he is prompted to come into action. It is expressed through his behaviour. 

Murray has divided the needs of man into the two categories: 

(i) Primary Needs: These are the basic needs of a man. For instance, food, water, air, etc. These needs are easily fulfilled. Behaviour of an individual does not undergo any particular change on account of these needs. 

(ii) Secondary Needs: These needs arise because of the psychological nature of an individual. These are:

• Achievement

• Recognition 

• Dominance 

• Autonomy 

• Affiliation

According to Murray, secondary needs are more powerful. These arise again and again. Man’s behaviour turns intense because of them. These needs go a long way in building the personality of an individual. Corresponding to rise or fall in these needs, there is change in the behaviour and personality of individuals.

● VII. Self Concept Theory: Carl Rogers has advocated this theory. It is closely related to organisational behaviour. 

Self concept implies how much we recognise ourselves and how much we are confident about ourselves. Self concept of an individual determines his concept about the external world. If an individual is doubtful of his ability, he will be afraid of the external world. On the contrary, if an individual is fully confident of himself, he will gladly accept the external world. Self concept of an individual is influenced by feedback of the environment. Feedback here implies to know what others think about us. In case feedback informs us that our opinion about ourselves is at variance with the opinion that others hold about ourselves, then there is need to re-evaluate ourselves. According to Rogers, on the basis of such re-evaluation people try to readjust themselves. Change in self concept brings about change in personality. 

It is on the basis of self concept that an individual perceives the surroundings. In other words, an individual views others in a way similar to his self concept. It can, therefore, be said unhesitatingly that behaviour of the individuals is influenced by self concept.

Since self concept of each individual differs, so a given situation is perceived by different people in different ways. That is why to get work from persons with different self concept, managers have to make use of different methods.

Define Organisational Behaviour and its elements. Discuss the role of Taylor in the development of Scientific Management Approach.

Q. Define Organisational Behaviour and its elements. Discuss the role of Taylor in the development of Scientific Management Approach.

Ans. Meaning of Organisational Behaviour: Organisational Behaviour consists of two words ‘organisation + behaviour’. Organisation means a unit in which two or more people work jointly for the attainment of an objective. On the other hand, behaviour means the actions and reactions of an individual or a group towards their activities. For example, an individual or a group is extremely happy on getting some important assignment. This is his behaviour. In this way, organisational behaviour means the behaviour of people while working in the organisation.

It refers to the study of human behaviour in the organisation so that the organisational effectiveness is improved.

Definition of Organisational Behaviour:

1. According to Davis and Newstram, “Organisational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organisations.”

Thus, Organisational Behaviour is a term used to explain the actions and reactions of individuals and groups to the stimuli surrounding them as they interact with one another while doing their jobs.

Elements: OB is the study of an individual, group and environmental characteristics. Apart from it, people work in an organisation structure and while working they make use of some techniques also. In this way, OB consists of a sum total of five components, e.g. individual, group, organisation structure and environment.

(1) Individual: Individuals help in the formation of organisation. Therefore, an individual is the most important component of OB. It is a special characteristic of an individual that each individual differs in their behaviour under OB, individuals behaving in almost a similar manner are placed in one category. Then studies are conducted for each category with their own specialities in behaviour. Each category helps in the discovery of techniques regarding explanation, prediction and control in respect of OB.

(2) Group: Organisation means that unit where more than two people work in a group. Therefore, human group has a special significance in the organisational behaviour. Each individual behaves differently as an individual and collectively. Under OB, efforts are made to study that when people happen to be in a group, how do they behave so that the conduct of the people in groups can be controlled.

(3) Job and Technology: Job means the total work allotted to individuals at the place of work. Job itself affects the behaviour of the people. Therefore, it is important to focus attention on the job. It is, however, important to see whether the job allotted to an individual or a group is liked by them or not. The behaviour of people is also influenced by their interaction while handling the job. Therefore, special attention has to be focused on the allotment of job. Similarly, behaviour is also influenced by the technique and equipment used for the completion of the job. The behaviour of the people remains positive if they are provided technique and equipment of their choice, otherwise, the effect is the reverse. Thus, we find that job and technique happen to be important parts of OB.

(4) Organisation Design: Organisation design does influence the work relationship of the people. Under this the power and responsibility is also distributed among the people. Moreover, the reporting technique, recording technique, rules, work procedure are also determined. They happen to be different in every type of organisation design. Organisation design is created keeping in view the nature of the job. Under OB, it is always kept in mind as to what type of organisation design will be suitable in a particular situation. The control on the behaviour of the employees is easier when the organisation design happens to be effective.

(5) Environment: No organisation is established in a vacuum. It is very much a part of the society where it is established. Different parts of society, e.g., family, government, social organisation together create environment. The behaviour of the people is affected by these factors. It is the function of OB to study the effect of these factors of the environment on the behaviour of the people.

Role of Taylor in the development of Scientific Management Approach: F.W. Taylor is the father of scientific management. In his company, he conducted a number of experiments and came to conclusion that the amount of work a labourer was doing was far less as compared to what he was supposed to be doing. He gave number of suggestions to solve this problem and, in doing so, he gave scientific outlook to management.

● Meaning of Scientific Management: The literary meaning of scientific management is performing the work of management in a scientific manner. In other words, discarding the traditional approaches to management and adopting newer and more scientific approaches in their place is called scientific management.

Scientific Management refers to that management which thinks that by scientifically analysing work, it would be possible to find one best way to do it.

● Principles of Scientific Management: The Scientific Management Approach propounded by F.W. Taylor is based upon the following five principles:

(1) Principle of Use of Science for the Rule of Thumb: According to this principle, all the activities bring performed in an organisation should be analysed in detail with the aim of developing a technique of accomplishing the maximum possible work in an efficient manner and at the minimum possible cost. This principle says that we should not get stuck in a set routine and continue with the old techniques of doing work, rather we should be constantly experimenting to develop new techniques which make the work much simpler and easier.

(2) Principle of Scientific Selection and Training of Workers: According to this principle, the selection and raining of workers should be done in a scientific manner. Scientific appointment means appointing only those people to do a particular work who possess the necessary capabilities to do it. However, only scientific selection of workers is not adequate in itself, the workers should also be imparted the necessary training from time to time. Proper training of workers increases their efficiency and hence benefits both the workers as well as the organisation.

(3) Principle of Cooperation between Labour and Management: As per this principle, such an atmosphere should be created in the organisation that labour (the major factors of production) and management consider each other other indispensable. Labour should understand that it cannot proceed in its work without the existence of Management, and Management should understand that it has no identity without the existence of Labour. If such an atmosphere prevails in an organisation, then both the parties would aim for the achievement of the same goal (i.e. the maximum and good quality production) and hence both of them will be successful in achieving the goals. Taylor has referred to such a situation as a ‘Mental Revolution’.

(4) Principle of Maximum Output: As per this principle, both the labour as well as management should make full efforts to produce the maximum output. They should spare no efforts for the maximum utilisation of the factors of production available in the organisation. This will have a direct impact on the profits of the organisation and the organisation will earn the maximum possible profits. Higher profits will results in higher wages for the workers and thus make them more dedicated towards the organisation.

(5) Principle of Equal Division of Responsibility: According to this principle, the work of the organisation and the related responsibilities should be clearly divided among the two main groups in the organisation (Management and Labour). Each group should be assigned work which it can accomplish more efficiently. For example, Management should be the one to.decide the time required to do a particular work, while the responsibility for actually doing the work should be with the labour. In this way, if the time required for doing the work is not properly determined, the manager would be accountable, and if the work has not been properly performed the labourer would be responsible. Hence, on proper implementation of this principle, the credit for doing work efficiently would be divided among both the groups and in case of any defaults, the responsibility would also be shared by both the groups.

● Techniques of Scientific Management: Taylor has devised the following techniques for actually implementing the principles of scientific management:

(1) Scientific Study of Work: Scientific management requires deep analysis of all the activities being performed in the organisation with the aim of producing the maximum possible output with the minimum possible efforts. In simple words, it may be said that Taylor was strictly opposed to incompetence and wanted to remove incompetence with whatever possible means. In his efforts to do so, he conducted a number of experiments and proved that (i) if the various parts of the process of production are reduced to the minimum, (ii) while working, unnecessary movements of the body are eliminated, (ii) the time required for doing every work is determined and (iv) recognising that human beings are not inanimate objects and hence are likely to feel fatigued, proper arrangements for their resting are made, then incompetence will be totally eliminated from the organisation. On this basis, he has divided work study into the following four parts: 

(i) Method Study,

(ii) Motion Study.

(iii) Time Study, and

(iv) Fatigue Study.

(2) Scientific Task Planning: Scientific task planning implies analysing all the different aspects of the work before actually commencing upon it, such as what is to be done? how is it to be done? where is it to be done? and when is it to be done? Taylor has advised the managers of industrial organisations to establish a separate Planning Department for this purpose.

(3) Scientific Selection and Training of Workers: First, it is determined that for a particular work, persons possessing what qualities and capabilities are required. Next, through conducting various examinations, capable persons are selected. Scientific selection is selecting the right person for the right position without any bias. According to the traditional techniques of management, this was usually done by the Foreman, however Taylor has advised the establishment of a Personnel Department for this purpose. After selecting suitable persons, they should be imparted proper training before deploying them on the job. Scientific management requires that training should be imparted only through modern techniques as it increases the efficiency of the workers.

(4) Standardisation: Standardisation means setting standards for different factors, after due deliberation. For example, the amount of work to be done by a worker in a day may be standardised. In other words, the worker is expected to do the standard amount of work everyday. In the same manner, standards may also be set for raw materials, machines and tools, techniques, conditions of work, etc.

Standardisation of Work?

It refers to the process of setting standards for various business activities.

(5) Differential Wage System: Taylor has advised the adoption of differential wage systems in order to motivate the employees. According to this system, wages are paid on the basis of work done and not on the basis of time spent in doing the work. In this system two different wage rates are used: one is the high wage rate and the other the low wage rate. Those workers who are able to produce the standard number of units within a fixed duration are paid as per the high wage rate, and those workers who are not able to produce the standard number of units within the same time are paid as per the lower wage rate.

Differential Wage System?

It refers to that technique of scientific management which differentiate between efficient and inefficient workers.

(6) Specialisation or Functional Foremanship: F.W. Taylor has propounded the functional organisation. This form of organisation is totally based on the principle of specialisation and makes full utilisation of the expertise of various experts. In a functional organisation, work is divided into many small parts and each part is assigned to an expert. In this manner, all the benefits of specialisation are availed of.

Functional Foremanship?

It refers to that technique of scientific management which makes possible the full utilisation of the principle of specialisations.

(7) Mental Revolution: Mental Revolution calls for a change in the mindset of both the managers and the workers. According to Taylor, a revolution in mindset of both the managers and the workers is required as it will promote feelings of cooperation, and will be beneficial for both the parties. Normally, it is seen that a conflict between the managers and the workers results in division of profits, with both the parties demanding a larger share of profit. This is the main reason that a mental revolution is required. According to Taylor, instead of fighting over division of profits, both the parties should make efforts for increasing the profits. Such a situation will results in an increase in production, and such a high increase in profits will make any talk of division of profits meaningless.

Mental Revolution?

It refers to the change in the attitude of management and workers towards one another from competition to cooperation.

Stress: Causes, techniques to reduce it.

 Q. What do you mean by stress? Explain its causes and what can we do to reduce stress?

Ans. MEANING OF STRESS:  Stress means/ refers to the bodily strain that an individual feels as a result of coping with some environmental factors. For example, students are under stress when they find their examinations are approaching because now they have to put in extra work for their study. Employees also come under stress for learning new techniques as a result of technical innovations in the working set up. Its effects can be both negative and positive. For example, students put in extra labour because of the stress of examination which brings them good marks. This is the positive outcome of stress. On the other hand, if the because of the transfer policy of a company, some employee is sent to some place away from his home, he will be under great stress and he shall have to face heavy mental torture. This is the negative effect of stress.

CAUSES OF STRESS: Causes of stress can be divided into various categories which are as follows:
(I) Organisational Stressors: (*Stressors refers to environmental demand that causes people to feel stressed.) The following are the chief causes related to the organisation stress that an individual has to face:
i) Organisational Policies: A company takes decision and formulate policies for the guidance of its employees. If a particular policy is against the expectations of a particular employee, it will create stress for that employee. For example, a company's policy lays down that the promotion of an employee will be determined by his age. Similarly, a transfer policy that results in quick transfers shall cause stress for the employees.

ii) Organisational Processes: Many processes are at work in every organisation. They are communication process, Decision-making process, staffing process, controlling process etc. If these processes happen to be ambiguous, long and difficult, they create stress for the employees. For example, if the communication process is to be carried on in writing, it will not be liked by any employee and that shall cause stress. So, long the process, more will be the stress.

iii) Organisational Structure: Organisational structure divides all the people working in an organisation into different levels, e.g., higher level, middle level, lower level, etc. If the levels of management happens to be more or less than the actual need, it is a source of anxiety for the employees which causes stress. Discrimination in the distribution of work can also be a cause for stress. Alloting too much work or too little work are both stressful for the employees. If the rules formulated for the smooth functioning of the organisation happens to be tough, they too contribute to the employees stress. In addition to this, there can be some other related factors connected with the organisational structure which can create stress for the employees.

iv) Working Conditions: The conditions under which the employees work can also cause stress if they are not proper or helpful, e.g., little or insufficient light, great noise, presence of dust, inconvenient temperature etc. These are some environmental factors which lay stress on the employees. In short, it can be said that adverse working conditions do help in decreasing employees' efficiency and increasing their stress.

(II) Personal Stressors: There is a cause of stress which is related to particular individual. It includes-
i) Job: There is no job which is without stress. It is, however, possible that a particular job may have less stress while another job may be more stressful. A job that is completely under our control has little stress and vice-versa. For example, a job of a surgeon and police officer has more stress.

ii) Uncertainty: Since future is uncertain, everybody's life has more uncertainties. Even then some people who are economically or otherwise strong donot care for the future uncertainties. These people have the capacity to face any adverse situation boldly. As a result, they remain stress free. On the contrary, those people who are afraid of future uncertainties, they start feeling stress quickly. They are under stress sometimes because of their jobs and sometimes because of something else. They are also worried about the quickly changing technical changes because one has to get training in order to faced them.

Iii) Life changes: In everybody's life there are two types of changes. Firstly, those
changes which occur slowly, e. g., advancing age,' and secondly, those changes which are quick and sudden. Those changes that occur slowly are less stressful. On the contrary, quick and sudden changes are more stressful.

iv) Personal Features: Every individual has some special characteristics. These characteristics govern the effect of stress on that individual.

Friedman and Rosenman have characterised people on the basis of their characteristics and placed them into two groups. Type A Personality and Type B Personality. The first type of people feel the
impact of stress very quickly, while the second type of people remain stress free. Both the types of people have the following characteristics.
A) Type A Personality: These people have the following characteristics:
• They walk fast.
• They eat quickly
• They are always impatient.
• They perform many jobs simultaneously.
• They want to work more in a short span of time.
• Their face always reflects nervousness.
• They cannot wait
• They have no time to enjoy life.
B) Type B Personality
• They are patient.
• They have nothing urgent.
• They donot believe in highlighting their achievements.
• They play for fun and not to win.
• They are not proud

(III) Group Stressors: All the people are associated with some group. The group deeply affects the conduct of an
individual and individuals' conduct is related to stress. Therefore, a group can be the possible cause of stress. The following are the chief causes of stress because of the group:
i) Lack of group membership: No individual can spend his life happily all alone. In other words, every individual should be the member of some group or the other in order to live happily. It is because of the fact that the group helps its members in every possible way and they feel themselves to be independent. If some individual does not have this good fortune, he can come under stress.

ii) Group Conflicts: Since every individual is associated with some group or the other. Consequently, many groups are formed and every group has many members. When there are so many people in a group, difference of opinion in such cases is natural. Such a situation creates conflicts within the group. Similarly, there is difference of opinion between the two groups. As a result of this there are conflicts. Because of these conflicts the members of the groups are always under stress.

(IV) Environmental Stressors: The following are usually counted among the environmental stressors:
i) Economic Conditions: In an age of quickly rising prices, it is become difficult for the fixed income group people to make both ends meet. Such an economic condition pushes people towards stress.

ii) Political Conditions: Political instability in the country can be a cause of stress. If the people of a country are constantly under the fear of a foreign attack, they can never be stress free.

iii) Family Conditions: Every individual has a family. He is deeply attached to his family. Every big or small mishap in the family is a source of stress for him.

iv) Class Relation: There are various classes in the society, e.g., man and woman, rich and poor, educated and uneducated etc. For example, if you happen to be a woman and you have to work in a male-dominated environment, this situation will be stressful for you. Therefore, we can say that class relationship can be a cause of stress.

(V) Job Related Stressors: The main reasons for the job related stress of an individual are the following:
i) Poorly Defined Role: Generally, all the employees working in a company have theirr role/job defined. It implies that every employee is made clear about what he is to doand whatnot. If the role/job of
the employees is not clearly defined, they will not be able to understand what they are to do and what not. In such a situation they will begin to feel stress, which will affect their efficiency.

ii) Value Differences: It is possible that there may be a difference between the values of the employee and those of the job. For example, the employee himself wants to work very honestly, but wrong practices in currency in the job. In such a situation, due to the difference in values, the employee begins to feel stress.

iii) Heavy Workload and Time Deadlines: It is observed that the employees are given a workload which is more than their capacity. In this situation the employees come under stress. Such a situation arises due to carelessness of the management. Similarly, because of the time deadline of any work the employees come under stress. In this way, if stress continues for a long time, the employees fall victim of horrible diseases like high blood pressure.

iv) Low Quality of Supervision: The job stress is related to managerial style. The managers adopt several management styles, namely, autocratic, democratic and free-rein. Some managers prefer autocratic style. The managers who follow this style have a tight control over the employees. Such managers give the employees a very severe punishment (like dismissal from the job) for their petty mistakes. This type of supervision causes unnecessary stress to the employees. Consequently, their work speed becomes slow.

v) Interdependent Nature of Work: The nature of certain jobs is such that it becomes obligatory for a person to be dependent upon others for the accomplishment of his job. In such a situation, if an employee wants to do his work but others create hurdles in his way, he is bound to come unders stress that if the complete job is done by a single person only, he can remain without any stress. Whereas an interdependent job gives rise to stress.

vi) Frustrating Environment: Here the  environment means the one  created by colleagues, boss and the employee himself. Generally, it is observed that an employee comes under stress, sometimes because of a colleague, sometimes the boss, and sometimes because ofhis own activities. If all these three factors of environment are of positive attitude, the employees feel no stress. On the other hand, these three factors have a negative attitude, the employees are bound to come under
stress.

Stress: Causes, techniques to reduce it.

TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE STRESS: We can reduce stress with the help of stress management. Management of stress is possible with the help of following techniques:
I. Individual Related Techniques: If an individual desires, he can change the stressful situation. He can muster (collect, इकट्ठा करना) courage to face it. In order to get rid of stress, following efforts can be made on the individual level:

i) Meditation: Meditation is an important mode of coming out of stress. Meditation means taking your mind away from the disturbing thoughts in your mind and concentrating on some other point. Meditation requires you to sit in some quite corner of your room with closed eyes. Some 'Mantra' is repeatedly ultered. By doing so the useless thoughts emerging in your mind stand eliminated which results in physical and mental peace. When such a peace is achieved, stress gets removed.

ii) Yoga: Yoga is getting popular for the last some many years. This is a great stress buster. Baba Rama Dev has demonstrated te hidden power of Yoga to the people. Under the Yoga some Asanas are performed. These asanas bring flexibility to our bones and muscles. As a result of it, our nervous system gets activated and our body gets a balanced blood supply. In this way, we achieve physical and mental peace. Under such a condition, stress is sure to be eliminated.

iii) Exercise: Apart from meditation and Yoga, light exercises also help in reducing stress. Light exercises includes walking, jogging, hopping, cycling, swimming etc.

iv) Balanced Diet: A balanced diet provides us physical and mental strength. As a result of it, we face stress with strength. Our food should include fruits, vegetables, pulses, bread, milk etc. in sufficient quantity. Taking excessive food or little food than necessary is harmful. Hence, we can save ourselves by taking a balanced diet.

v) Time Management: Generally we see that only those people are the victims of stress who fail to accomplish their jobs in time. Its cause is absence of time management. Therfore, we can avoid stress by time management. Following things should be kept in mind with respect to time management:
• What is to be done tomorrow should be decided on the eve of today.
• Each day's priorities should be determined.
• Doing only a single job at a time.
• Attempt should be made to finish the job quickly after the job is assigned to you.

vi) Sufficient Sleep: Sleep is equally important for an individual like other things. Adequate sleep refreshes our body and mind and stress cannot bother us.

vii) Awaring limits: Some people remain under stress simply because all the people are not happy with them. Everybody should avoid doing any evil to others. As far as possible we should do good to others. But even with your best efforts if you fail to please somebody, do not bother yourself. There is a limit to please everybody. We should better understand this truth, the earlier the better. By doing so you can easily avoid stress.

viii) Social Support: Generally, it has been observed that no individual can be happy for all the times. Difficulties do come in life. In such a situation, it is natural for an individual to feel stressed. This stress can be eliminated with the help of social support. Social support means support from the family, neighbours, friends, relatives, colleagues etc. Everybody needs all these people so that he can share his difficulties with them. If he gets this support, he will certainly come out of stressful situation. That is why it is so very important for every individual to maintain his relationship with different parts of society so that he can seek their help in times of need. Apart from it, seeking God's help gives us mental strength and we can easily get rid of stress.

ix) Realistic Goals: Generally people set very high goals for themselves which is sometimes difficult to achieve. When their goals, are not achieved, they come under stress. Therefore, we should set goals which are realistic and which are capable of achieving. If sometimes we find that goals set by us seem to be unattainable, we should be wise enough to revise our goals to make them attainable. Setting attainable goals for ourselves will safe us from stress.

x) Massage: Massage helps our muscles to relax which gives us a sound sleep which in turn refreshes our body. As a result of it stress also get relieved.

II. Organisation Related Techniques: When policies, rules, procedures, organisational structure, authorities, responsibilities etc are against the wishes of the employees, stress is the natural outcome. Following efforts can be made at the organizational level to help the employees to ease out of stress.

i) Job Enrichment: Job enrichment aims at enhancing the importance of work. In other words, such a job which (i) has wide of authority, responsibility and challenge, (ii) needs high level of knowledge and experience, (iii) opportunities for individual development, (iv) freedom of taking decision. The employees feel honoured on getting such a job and their interest in the job increases. In this way, the stress of the employees can be eliminated by way of job enrichment.

ii) Imparting training: Every employee wishes to be efficient in his work. Keeping this thing in mind effort should be made for their training. Consequently, they will gain efficiency in their job and they will get recognition in the organisation. This will keep them happy and stress will not affect them.

iii) Participation in Management: Generally, it has been observed that the employees do not know their roles in the organisation. As a result of this, they remain under stress. The reason is that they have no role to play in the decision-making in the organisation. If the employees are made a part of the process of decision-making regarding their job, it will have three-fold benefits. First, the employees will feel honoured, second, they will come to know about their role in the organisation and finally, they will implement the decision wholeheartedly and will not oppose them. By being a part of decision-making process, they will come to realise the organisation's expectations out of them. Their efficiency will increase, they will remain happy and be able to face stress boldly.

iv) Open Communication: Open Communication is a medium of getting rid of stress. Under this process, all the employees listen to the values of others with an open mind and they will put forward their own views with a really frank attitude. This process leads to a free exchange of orders, suggestions, complaints etc. Such a situation removes all kinds of ambiguities and employees remain stress-free.

v) Proper Selection: Imroper selection gives rise to stress. If the employees are not alloted works according to their taste and ability, it will affect their efficiency.  They will feel stressed. Therefore, while selecting the employees the needs of the job should always be kept in mind. Every job should get a really competent man. This will ensure employees satisfaction and keep stress away.

vi) Effective Reward System: If the work of the employees is recognized and they are appropriately rewarded for their efforts, they will not have to face the problem of stress. Therefore, those employees who perform expertly, should always be rewarded. This will improve their efficiency and stress will stand eliminated.

vii) Career Advancement Opportunity: When the employees have a feeling that they are not getting opportunities for career advancement, stress is the only outcome of such a feeling. They get a feeling that their capabilities are not fully exploited. They become indifferent towards their job. In such a situation if they are given career advancement opportunities, they can overcome their stress. Every employee wants their promotion. This requires efficiency and an employee can be efficient only when he has the opportunities for training and development. Therefore, by providing these facilities the way to their promotion can be smoothened. This will bring happiness to them and make them stress-free.

viii) Employees' Goodness Scheme: There are many employees' welfare schemes which can be implemented to ease the pressure from the employees. The purpose of these welfare schemes happens to be to help leave their evil habits. For example, special lectures by experts can be arranged on the topics of evils of drinking, smoking, dishonesty, shirking etc. With the help of the experts they can be made acquintef with their rights and duties. In addition to that arrangement in the company can be made regarding meditation, yoga, hawan etc. By doing so, the employees will get a feeling that the company is taking interest in their welfare. This will boost their confidence. They will be more efficient and stress-free.

ix) Suitable Policies: In order to run the organisation smoothly, policies are formulated. If these policies are against the expectations of the employees, it creates stress for them. Therefore, the policies have to be appropriate to avoid any stress for the employees. The policies should be so formulated as to be acceptable for both the parties. If, however, some policy has to be formulated which is not welcome by the employees, it should always be done only with their consultation. This will certainly help in easing out the stress of the employees.

x) Easy Processes: Many processes are at work in every organisation, e.g., Decision-making, communication, controlling etc. If these processes are ambiguous and difficult, no work will be accomplished in time and the employees will automatically come under stress. Therefore, all the process in the organisation should be clear and simple. By doing so, everybody will be able to understand them and observe them. As a result of this, his efficiency will increase and his stress will be eliminated. 

Stress: Causes, techniques to reduce it.