Macroeconomics: Meaning, scope, limitations

 Q. Define macroeconomics. Explain the scope and limitations of macroeconomics.

Ans. MEANING OF MACROECONOMICS: The term ‘Macro’ is derived from the Greek Word ‘Makros’ which means large. Thus, macroeconomics means economics of large dimension, referring to the economy as a whole.

Macroeconomics is defined as that branch of economics which studies economic activities including economic issues and economic problems at the level of economy as a whole. It focuses on macroeconomic variables like aggregate demand, aggregate supply, general price level, national income and output etc.

DEFINITION OF MICROECONOMICS:
In the words of Boulding, “Macroeconomics theory is that part of Economics which studies the over all averages and aggregates of the system.”

According to Shapiro, “Macroeconomics deals with the functioning of the economy as a whole.”

SCOPE OF MACROECONOMICS: It refers to the issues, problems and parameters of Economics that are included in macroeconomics. Following are the broad areas of study of macroeconomics and subject matter of macroeconomics.

i) Theory of National Income: Macroeconomics studies the concept of national income, its different elements, methods of measurement and social accounting.

ii) Theory of Employment: Macroeconomics also studies problems relating to employment and unemployment. It studies different factors determining the level of employment, viz. effective demand, aggregate supply aggregate consumption, aggregate investment, aggregate saving, etc.

iii) Theory of Money: Changes in demand for and supply of money have considerable
bearing on the level of employment. Macroeconomics studies functions of money and theories relating to it. The system of barking and other financial institutions is also studied in this context.

iv) Theory of General Price Level: Determination of changes in general price-level are the core issues of macroeconotnics. Problems concerning inflation and deflation are the principal issues involved in this context.

v) Economic Growth and Development: Study of problems relating to economic growth or increase in per capita real income forms a part of macroeconomics. Specifically, it studies the growth problem of underdeveloped economies.

vi) Business Cycles: Economic activity always shows ups and downs, it never shows a steady pattern of change for all time to come. This cyclical movement of the economy is better known as business cycle. It is a major macroeconomic issue and an important area of macroeconomics study.

vii) Theory of International Trade: Macroeconomics also studies trade among different countries. Theory of international trade, tariff protection, etc., are subjects of great significance in macroeconomics.

viii) Budgetary Deficit and Fiscal Policy: In the wake of privatisation and globalisation of the world economies, budgetary deficit and the related fiscal policy has emerged as a issue of macroeconomics.

ix) Interest Rates and Monetary Policy: Monetary policy involves monetary measures by the government in terms of changing interest rate with a view to stimulating economic growth and stability.

LIMITATIONS OF MACROECONOMICS: Main limitations of macroeconomics are as under:

i) Dependence on individual units: Several conclusions of macroeconomics are based on the sum total of individual units. In fact, it is not correct, because what is true for individuals may not necessarily be true for the whole economy. For instance, an individual may save in terms of money but if everybody starts saving, the aggregate demand will fall causing reduction in national income.

ii) Heterogeneous Units: Under macroeconomics, hetergeneous units are studied. These units are measured in different ways. It is not possible to express these units in uniform numbers or homogeneous measure.

iii) The composition (ingredients) of structure (manner) of the Aggregate is more important than the Aggregate itself: Macroeconomics studies aggregate but as a matter of fact, it is the composition of the structure of the aggregates which influences an economy more than the aggregate itself. Supposing, price level in 2012 and 2013 remains constant but it does not imply thar no change prices took place in 2013. It is possible that prices of food grains might have fallen in 2013 and that of industrial goods might have risen correspondingly, keeping the general price level constant. Thus, for a proper study of an economy, knowledge of the composition of structure of the aggregate is much essential as the aggregate itself.

iv) Different effects of Aggregates: Another difficulty in the study of macroeconomics is that it does not study the different effects of an aggregate on different sectors of an economy. Macroeconomic tendency (particular way of behaving) has not uniform effect on all sectors of an economy. For example, rise in price level benefits the traders and the industrialists but the wage-earners are the losers.

v) Limited Application: Another limitation of macroeconomics is that most of the models relating to it have only theoretical significance. They have very little use in practical life. Moreover, it is very difficult to measure various aggregates of macroeconomics.

vi) It ignores the contribution of Individual units: Macroeconomics analysis throws light only on the functioning of the aggregates. However, in real life, the economic activities and decisions taken by individual units on private level have their effects on the economy as a whole. Such effects are not known by the study of macroeconomics alone. 

Stress: Causes, techniques to reduce it.

 Q. What do you mean by stress? Explain its causes and what can we do to reduce stress?

Ans. MEANING OF STRESS:  Stress means/ refers to the bodily strain that an individual feels as a result of coping with some environmental factors. For example, students are under stress when they find their examinations are approaching because now they have to put in extra work for their study. Employees also come under stress for learning new techniques as a result of technical innovations in the working set up. Its effects can be both negative and positive. For example, students put in extra labour because of the stress of examination which brings them good marks. This is the positive outcome of stress. On the other hand, if the because of the transfer policy of a company, some employee is sent to some place away from his home, he will be under great stress and he shall have to face heavy mental torture. This is the negative effect of stress.

CAUSES OF STRESS: Causes of stress can be divided into various categories which are as follows:
(I) Organisational Stressors: (*Stressors refers to environmental demand that causes people to feel stressed.) The following are the chief causes related to the organisation stress that an individual has to face:
i) Organisational Policies: A company takes decision and formulate policies for the guidance of its employees. If a particular policy is against the expectations of a particular employee, it will create stress for that employee. For example, a company's policy lays down that the promotion of an employee will be determined by his age. Similarly, a transfer policy that results in quick transfers shall cause stress for the employees.

ii) Organisational Processes: Many processes are at work in every organisation. They are communication process, Decision-making process, staffing process, controlling process etc. If these processes happen to be ambiguous, long and difficult, they create stress for the employees. For example, if the communication process is to be carried on in writing, it will not be liked by any employee and that shall cause stress. So, long the process, more will be the stress.

iii) Organisational Structure: Organisational structure divides all the people working in an organisation into different levels, e.g., higher level, middle level, lower level, etc. If the levels of management happens to be more or less than the actual need, it is a source of anxiety for the employees which causes stress. Discrimination in the distribution of work can also be a cause for stress. Alloting too much work or too little work are both stressful for the employees. If the rules formulated for the smooth functioning of the organisation happens to be tough, they too contribute to the employees stress. In addition to this, there can be some other related factors connected with the organisational structure which can create stress for the employees.

iv) Working Conditions: The conditions under which the employees work can also cause stress if they are not proper or helpful, e.g., little or insufficient light, great noise, presence of dust, inconvenient temperature etc. These are some environmental factors which lay stress on the employees. In short, it can be said that adverse working conditions do help in decreasing employees' efficiency and increasing their stress.

(II) Personal Stressors: There is a cause of stress which is related to particular individual. It includes-
i) Job: There is no job which is without stress. It is, however, possible that a particular job may have less stress while another job may be more stressful. A job that is completely under our control has little stress and vice-versa. For example, a job of a surgeon and police officer has more stress.

ii) Uncertainty: Since future is uncertain, everybody's life has more uncertainties. Even then some people who are economically or otherwise strong donot care for the future uncertainties. These people have the capacity to face any adverse situation boldly. As a result, they remain stress free. On the contrary, those people who are afraid of future uncertainties, they start feeling stress quickly. They are under stress sometimes because of their jobs and sometimes because of something else. They are also worried about the quickly changing technical changes because one has to get training in order to faced them.

Iii) Life changes: In everybody's life there are two types of changes. Firstly, those
changes which occur slowly, e. g., advancing age,' and secondly, those changes which are quick and sudden. Those changes that occur slowly are less stressful. On the contrary, quick and sudden changes are more stressful.

iv) Personal Features: Every individual has some special characteristics. These characteristics govern the effect of stress on that individual.

Friedman and Rosenman have characterised people on the basis of their characteristics and placed them into two groups. Type A Personality and Type B Personality. The first type of people feel the
impact of stress very quickly, while the second type of people remain stress free. Both the types of people have the following characteristics.
A) Type A Personality: These people have the following characteristics:
• They walk fast.
• They eat quickly
• They are always impatient.
• They perform many jobs simultaneously.
• They want to work more in a short span of time.
• Their face always reflects nervousness.
• They cannot wait
• They have no time to enjoy life.
B) Type B Personality
• They are patient.
• They have nothing urgent.
• They donot believe in highlighting their achievements.
• They play for fun and not to win.
• They are not proud

(III) Group Stressors: All the people are associated with some group. The group deeply affects the conduct of an
individual and individuals' conduct is related to stress. Therefore, a group can be the possible cause of stress. The following are the chief causes of stress because of the group:
i) Lack of group membership: No individual can spend his life happily all alone. In other words, every individual should be the member of some group or the other in order to live happily. It is because of the fact that the group helps its members in every possible way and they feel themselves to be independent. If some individual does not have this good fortune, he can come under stress.

ii) Group Conflicts: Since every individual is associated with some group or the other. Consequently, many groups are formed and every group has many members. When there are so many people in a group, difference of opinion in such cases is natural. Such a situation creates conflicts within the group. Similarly, there is difference of opinion between the two groups. As a result of this there are conflicts. Because of these conflicts the members of the groups are always under stress.

(IV) Environmental Stressors: The following are usually counted among the environmental stressors:
i) Economic Conditions: In an age of quickly rising prices, it is become difficult for the fixed income group people to make both ends meet. Such an economic condition pushes people towards stress.

ii) Political Conditions: Political instability in the country can be a cause of stress. If the people of a country are constantly under the fear of a foreign attack, they can never be stress free.

iii) Family Conditions: Every individual has a family. He is deeply attached to his family. Every big or small mishap in the family is a source of stress for him.

iv) Class Relation: There are various classes in the society, e.g., man and woman, rich and poor, educated and uneducated etc. For example, if you happen to be a woman and you have to work in a male-dominated environment, this situation will be stressful for you. Therefore, we can say that class relationship can be a cause of stress.

(V) Job Related Stressors: The main reasons for the job related stress of an individual are the following:
i) Poorly Defined Role: Generally, all the employees working in a company have theirr role/job defined. It implies that every employee is made clear about what he is to doand whatnot. If the role/job of
the employees is not clearly defined, they will not be able to understand what they are to do and what not. In such a situation they will begin to feel stress, which will affect their efficiency.

ii) Value Differences: It is possible that there may be a difference between the values of the employee and those of the job. For example, the employee himself wants to work very honestly, but wrong practices in currency in the job. In such a situation, due to the difference in values, the employee begins to feel stress.

iii) Heavy Workload and Time Deadlines: It is observed that the employees are given a workload which is more than their capacity. In this situation the employees come under stress. Such a situation arises due to carelessness of the management. Similarly, because of the time deadline of any work the employees come under stress. In this way, if stress continues for a long time, the employees fall victim of horrible diseases like high blood pressure.

iv) Low Quality of Supervision: The job stress is related to managerial style. The managers adopt several management styles, namely, autocratic, democratic and free-rein. Some managers prefer autocratic style. The managers who follow this style have a tight control over the employees. Such managers give the employees a very severe punishment (like dismissal from the job) for their petty mistakes. This type of supervision causes unnecessary stress to the employees. Consequently, their work speed becomes slow.

v) Interdependent Nature of Work: The nature of certain jobs is such that it becomes obligatory for a person to be dependent upon others for the accomplishment of his job. In such a situation, if an employee wants to do his work but others create hurdles in his way, he is bound to come unders stress that if the complete job is done by a single person only, he can remain without any stress. Whereas an interdependent job gives rise to stress.

vi) Frustrating Environment: Here the  environment means the one  created by colleagues, boss and the employee himself. Generally, it is observed that an employee comes under stress, sometimes because of a colleague, sometimes the boss, and sometimes because ofhis own activities. If all these three factors of environment are of positive attitude, the employees feel no stress. On the other hand, these three factors have a negative attitude, the employees are bound to come under
stress.

Stress: Causes, techniques to reduce it.

TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE STRESS: We can reduce stress with the help of stress management. Management of stress is possible with the help of following techniques:
I. Individual Related Techniques: If an individual desires, he can change the stressful situation. He can muster (collect, इकट्ठा करना) courage to face it. In order to get rid of stress, following efforts can be made on the individual level:

i) Meditation: Meditation is an important mode of coming out of stress. Meditation means taking your mind away from the disturbing thoughts in your mind and concentrating on some other point. Meditation requires you to sit in some quite corner of your room with closed eyes. Some 'Mantra' is repeatedly ultered. By doing so the useless thoughts emerging in your mind stand eliminated which results in physical and mental peace. When such a peace is achieved, stress gets removed.

ii) Yoga: Yoga is getting popular for the last some many years. This is a great stress buster. Baba Rama Dev has demonstrated te hidden power of Yoga to the people. Under the Yoga some Asanas are performed. These asanas bring flexibility to our bones and muscles. As a result of it, our nervous system gets activated and our body gets a balanced blood supply. In this way, we achieve physical and mental peace. Under such a condition, stress is sure to be eliminated.

iii) Exercise: Apart from meditation and Yoga, light exercises also help in reducing stress. Light exercises includes walking, jogging, hopping, cycling, swimming etc.

iv) Balanced Diet: A balanced diet provides us physical and mental strength. As a result of it, we face stress with strength. Our food should include fruits, vegetables, pulses, bread, milk etc. in sufficient quantity. Taking excessive food or little food than necessary is harmful. Hence, we can save ourselves by taking a balanced diet.

v) Time Management: Generally we see that only those people are the victims of stress who fail to accomplish their jobs in time. Its cause is absence of time management. Therfore, we can avoid stress by time management. Following things should be kept in mind with respect to time management:
• What is to be done tomorrow should be decided on the eve of today.
• Each day's priorities should be determined.
• Doing only a single job at a time.
• Attempt should be made to finish the job quickly after the job is assigned to you.

vi) Sufficient Sleep: Sleep is equally important for an individual like other things. Adequate sleep refreshes our body and mind and stress cannot bother us.

vii) Awaring limits: Some people remain under stress simply because all the people are not happy with them. Everybody should avoid doing any evil to others. As far as possible we should do good to others. But even with your best efforts if you fail to please somebody, do not bother yourself. There is a limit to please everybody. We should better understand this truth, the earlier the better. By doing so you can easily avoid stress.

viii) Social Support: Generally, it has been observed that no individual can be happy for all the times. Difficulties do come in life. In such a situation, it is natural for an individual to feel stressed. This stress can be eliminated with the help of social support. Social support means support from the family, neighbours, friends, relatives, colleagues etc. Everybody needs all these people so that he can share his difficulties with them. If he gets this support, he will certainly come out of stressful situation. That is why it is so very important for every individual to maintain his relationship with different parts of society so that he can seek their help in times of need. Apart from it, seeking God's help gives us mental strength and we can easily get rid of stress.

ix) Realistic Goals: Generally people set very high goals for themselves which is sometimes difficult to achieve. When their goals, are not achieved, they come under stress. Therefore, we should set goals which are realistic and which are capable of achieving. If sometimes we find that goals set by us seem to be unattainable, we should be wise enough to revise our goals to make them attainable. Setting attainable goals for ourselves will safe us from stress.

x) Massage: Massage helps our muscles to relax which gives us a sound sleep which in turn refreshes our body. As a result of it stress also get relieved.

II. Organisation Related Techniques: When policies, rules, procedures, organisational structure, authorities, responsibilities etc are against the wishes of the employees, stress is the natural outcome. Following efforts can be made at the organizational level to help the employees to ease out of stress.

i) Job Enrichment: Job enrichment aims at enhancing the importance of work. In other words, such a job which (i) has wide of authority, responsibility and challenge, (ii) needs high level of knowledge and experience, (iii) opportunities for individual development, (iv) freedom of taking decision. The employees feel honoured on getting such a job and their interest in the job increases. In this way, the stress of the employees can be eliminated by way of job enrichment.

ii) Imparting training: Every employee wishes to be efficient in his work. Keeping this thing in mind effort should be made for their training. Consequently, they will gain efficiency in their job and they will get recognition in the organisation. This will keep them happy and stress will not affect them.

iii) Participation in Management: Generally, it has been observed that the employees do not know their roles in the organisation. As a result of this, they remain under stress. The reason is that they have no role to play in the decision-making in the organisation. If the employees are made a part of the process of decision-making regarding their job, it will have three-fold benefits. First, the employees will feel honoured, second, they will come to know about their role in the organisation and finally, they will implement the decision wholeheartedly and will not oppose them. By being a part of decision-making process, they will come to realise the organisation's expectations out of them. Their efficiency will increase, they will remain happy and be able to face stress boldly.

iv) Open Communication: Open Communication is a medium of getting rid of stress. Under this process, all the employees listen to the values of others with an open mind and they will put forward their own views with a really frank attitude. This process leads to a free exchange of orders, suggestions, complaints etc. Such a situation removes all kinds of ambiguities and employees remain stress-free.

v) Proper Selection: Imroper selection gives rise to stress. If the employees are not alloted works according to their taste and ability, it will affect their efficiency.  They will feel stressed. Therefore, while selecting the employees the needs of the job should always be kept in mind. Every job should get a really competent man. This will ensure employees satisfaction and keep stress away.

vi) Effective Reward System: If the work of the employees is recognized and they are appropriately rewarded for their efforts, they will not have to face the problem of stress. Therefore, those employees who perform expertly, should always be rewarded. This will improve their efficiency and stress will stand eliminated.

vii) Career Advancement Opportunity: When the employees have a feeling that they are not getting opportunities for career advancement, stress is the only outcome of such a feeling. They get a feeling that their capabilities are not fully exploited. They become indifferent towards their job. In such a situation if they are given career advancement opportunities, they can overcome their stress. Every employee wants their promotion. This requires efficiency and an employee can be efficient only when he has the opportunities for training and development. Therefore, by providing these facilities the way to their promotion can be smoothened. This will bring happiness to them and make them stress-free.

viii) Employees' Goodness Scheme: There are many employees' welfare schemes which can be implemented to ease the pressure from the employees. The purpose of these welfare schemes happens to be to help leave their evil habits. For example, special lectures by experts can be arranged on the topics of evils of drinking, smoking, dishonesty, shirking etc. With the help of the experts they can be made acquintef with their rights and duties. In addition to that arrangement in the company can be made regarding meditation, yoga, hawan etc. By doing so, the employees will get a feeling that the company is taking interest in their welfare. This will boost their confidence. They will be more efficient and stress-free.

ix) Suitable Policies: In order to run the organisation smoothly, policies are formulated. If these policies are against the expectations of the employees, it creates stress for them. Therefore, the policies have to be appropriate to avoid any stress for the employees. The policies should be so formulated as to be acceptable for both the parties. If, however, some policy has to be formulated which is not welcome by the employees, it should always be done only with their consultation. This will certainly help in easing out the stress of the employees.

x) Easy Processes: Many processes are at work in every organisation, e.g., Decision-making, communication, controlling etc. If these processes are ambiguous and difficult, no work will be accomplished in time and the employees will automatically come under stress. Therefore, all the process in the organisation should be clear and simple. By doing so, everybody will be able to understand them and observe them. As a result of this, his efficiency will increase and his stress will be eliminated. 

Stress: Causes, techniques to reduce it.

"Business is the product of environment". Explain. Also discuss the relationship between business and environment.

 Q. "Business is the product of environment". Explain. Also discuss the relationship between business and environment. 

Ans. No business enterprise functions in a vacuum. Each business operates in its unique environment. Business is the product of the environment as various environmental factors directly influence it. A business firm might be regarded as a social institution that is surrounded by external forces that affect how it operates. Both living and nonliving entities are part of the environment. Decisions of the whole business unit such as nature, location, product/service, various policies of the business unit etc are influenced by the business environment. Success or failure of any business organisation is also depend on its environment. Thus, we can say that business is the product of environment.

Relationship between business and environment: Business and environment are closely related to each other. A business enterprise can expand itself as and when favourable changes take place in the environment. On the other hand, when the prevailing environment is unfavorable, the business may face challenges and problems. The relationship between business and environment is as follows:

i) Mutually Related: There is a correlation between business and its environment. Both influences/affects each other. For example, when the competition is more, the business may decide to go for aggressive advertisement. So, here environment is affecting business. Hence, business and environment are mutually related to each other.

ii) Environment Requires Business to be Dynamic: Because of changing environment business policies and strategies have to be dynamic. Many elements in the environment are constantly changing e.g. the economic, social, political, cultural, technological factors of environment never remain constant. These factors are flexible or dynamic, so policies should be dynamic enough to adjust to the changing environment.

iii) Opportunities and Threats: If the prevailing environment is favourable for business growth and prosperity then business unit respond positively. For example, business unit is often changed to produce more when government gives subsidy or reduces tax burden. On the other hand, if business environment poses threat to the business, then it is unfavorable for business unit. For example, when the government imposes high Taz rates on profits then it acts as hindrance in the growth.

       Thus, business and environment are mutually dependent on each other. The business affects environment and environment affects business. Both business and environment are closely related to each other.  

"Business is the product of environment". Explain. Also discuss the relationship between business and environment. 

Merits and limitations of computer

 1. (a) Discuss merits of computer.

(b) Discuss limitations of computer.

Ans.  (a) Merits of computer are as follow:
i) High Speed: A computer is a high speed device capable of performing arithmetic at unbelievable speed. The units of speed in computer are microsecond, the nanosecond and even the picosecond.

ii) Accuracy: Computers never commits errors in processing. Computerized systems sometimes do produce wrong results but in almost all such cases the error is because of wrong input of data and instructions.

iii) Reliability: (means strength) The reliability of computer is indeed very high. Computers are designed so as to make maintenance easy. Most of the hardware is in module form. When a component fails, the component can be replaced or repaired at a minimal cost.

iv) Versatility: (means having different skills & qualities) A computer is a very versatile machine. This machine can be used to solve the problems relating to various different fields. At one instant, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a chess game and then a busy in taking up a payroll problem.

v) Automation: Once a program and instructions are input in the computers memory, the operator need not make intervention when program is being executed because the instructions automatically take care of the steps to be processed to solve the problem.

vi) Diligence: The capacity of computer of performing repetitive tasks without getting tired is called diligence. A computer can operate twenty four hours continuously without taking any rest. It works with same concentration and with same accuracy as the first instruction.

vii) Data Base: The use of computer facility in business organisation facilitates establishment of database. Data base integrates data records and reduces data redundancy (back ups ans duplicates).

viii) Reduction in Paper Work: The use of computers for data processing has reduced some of the paper needs through the storage of data in elaborately constructed data bases and files where they can retrieved (get back/ regain) when needed.

ix) Reduces Cost: Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

x) Facilitates Report Preparation: Data maintained with the help of a computer facilitates the preparation of various types of reports required by the organisational executives for the purpose of decision-making and control.

xi) Reduce the space requirements: The use of computers for office activities reduces the requirements of office space which otherwise is required.

xii) Reduce the manpower requirement:  The number of persons required for performing various organisational activities will be reduced by using a computer system.

xiii) Increased ability to perform computations: The use of computer has helped in performing computations with speed.

xiv) Intangible benefits: It includes customer image, leadership in the industry and community, increases customer morale and management confidence.

(b) Limitations of computers are as follow:
i) No I.Q.: It possesses (अधिकार) no intelligence of its own. It's I.Q. is zero atleast till today. It has to told what to do and in what sequence.

ii) The application logic must be understood: The computer can only process jobs which can be expressed in finite number of steps. Each step must be clearly defined. If the steps in the solution cannot be precisely stated, the job cannot be done.

iii) Dependent on human being.

iv) It requires a lot of looking after.

v) Environment: The environment for operating the computer should be suitable to it.

vi) No Feeling/Judgement: Computer cannot make judgement which a human being make in day to day life. Its judgement is based on the instructions given to it in the form of programmes that are written by us.

vii) It is very sensitive to dust particles even a small dust particle can make great losses to it. 

Meaning, importance, limitations of Microeconomics

 Q.  What is microeconomics? Discuss the importance and limitations of microeconomics. 

Ans. MEANING OF MICROECONOMICS: The term micro has been borrowed from the Greek word, ‘Mikros’ meaning small. Under microeconomics, we study individual units, like, a Consumer, a firm, an industry, price determination of a particular commodity etc. In other words, microeconomics studies economic relationships, or economic problems at the level of an individual- an individual firm, an individual household or an individual consumer. It is concerned with determination of output and price for an individual firm or industry.

In the words of Shapiro, “Microeconomics deals with small parts of the economy.”

IMPORTANCE OF MICROECONOMICS: Importance of the study of microeconomics lies in the following:

i) Operation of an Economy: Microeconomics explains the functioning of an economy. It tells whether different constituents of economy, namely, consumers, firms, etc. are functioning efficiently or not.

ii) Prediction: Predictions are made on the basis of the theories of Microeconomics. If a cause occurs then a set of results will follow. For instance, if demand increases prices are also likely to rise.

iii) Economic Policies: Study of microeconomics helps in the formation of economic policies. 

iv) Economic welfare: Microeconomics informs us of the conditions of economic welfare. Study of microeconomics suggests how the ideal of economic welfare can be achieved.

v) Mangerial Decision: Business firms make use of microeconomics to take managerial decisions. They take these decisions on the basis of cost and demand analysis.

LIMITATIONS OF MICROECONOMICS: Following are the main limitations of microeconomics: 

i) Static: In the study of microeconomics, mostly static analysis is made use of. In it many economic variables are assumed to be constant.

ii) Wrong Conclusions: The conclusions drawn from microeconomics are in many cases not valid from the point of view of macroeconomics. For example, in microeconomics, saving is a virtue so far is individual is concerned but if it is viewed from macro angle, if the entire population begins to save more than before, then there will be fall in aggregate demand leading to fall in production and employment.

iii) Unrealistic Assumptions: This economics analysis is based on many unrealistic assumptions like prevalence of full employment and perfect competition in the economy. In real life these assumptions are not found.

iv) Limited Scope: Microeconomics has limited scope, study of many important economic policies and problems like, fiscal policy, monetary policy, inflation, unemployment, etc. is outside its scope. 

Management: meaning, nature, features, characteristics

 Q. What is the meaning of Management? Explain its essential characteristics in detail. 

Ans. MEANING OF MANAGEMENT: Management can be scanned as 'Manage‐Men- T' i.e Manage - Men - Tactfully. It is the art of getting work done by others. Management refers to the process of conducting a set of functions (such as planning, organising, staffing,directing and controlling) to get the work done in an. efficient and effective manner. It also means taking care of pre-determined objectives. Its purpose is to achieve the best possible results by making use of material, labour, machine, methods, money and market with the minimum time, investment and efforts. Management brings together all six Ms i.e., Men, Money, Machines, Materials, Methods and Markets. 

According to Harold Koontz, "Management is the art of getting things done through others and with formally organised groups."

According to F.W. Taylor, "Management is the art of knowing what you want to do and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way."

According to Prof. Donald J. Clough (Prof. Clouge), "Management is the art and science of decision-making and leadership."

According to Rose Moore, "Management means decision-making."

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT: 

i) Management is a Goal-oriented Process: No goal in hand-no need of management. In other words, we need management when we have some goals to be achieved. A manager on the basis of his knowledge and experience tries to achieve the goals which are already decided. Hence, nothing is wrong to say that management is a goal-oriented process. 

ii) Management is all pervasive: Anything minus management is nothing or zero. Here, by anything we mean all types of activities—business and non-business. If we deduct management out of these activities, the result will be failure or zero. It means management is necessary to conduct any type of activities. Hence, it is pervasive or universal. [Management is pervasive in nature I.e. applicable to everywhere. It is used in business as well as non-business organisations like educational institutions, charitable trusts etc. The principles of management are applicable at all the levels, departments, employees in the organisation.]

iii) Management is multi-dimensional: Management is three dimensional activity. Or Management is a complex activity that has three main dimensions. These are:

a) Management of work: Every organisation is established for doing some work such as school provides education, hospital treat patients and factory produces goods etc. Of these, no work will be satisfactorily completed without management.

b) Management of people: Each organisation is established for doing some work and the same is conducted by people. Hence, it is necessary to manage the people so that the work can be accomplished in a better way.

c) Management of operations: To achieve the goals of an organisation many operations or activities need to be conducted, such as, production, sale, purchase, finance, accounting, R&D etc. Again, management is needed to make sure that operations are accomplished efficiently and effectively. 

iv) Management is a Continuous process: Management is not a process which can be performed once and for all, but it is a Continuous process. Functions of management like planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling Continuously need to be done. These functions are simultaneously performed by all managers all the time. A manager is busy sometimes doing one managerial activity and at the other time, some other activity. [It is a continuous process as it continues till business survives.] 

v) Management is a Group Activity: It means that it is not a single person who consummates all the activities of an organisation but it is always a group of persons (managers). Hence, management is a group effort. 

vi) Management is a Dynamic Function: Management is a dynamic function and has to adapt itself to the changing environment.

vii) Management is an Intangible Force: Management is that power which cannot be seen. It can only be felt. If any organisation is heading towards higher levels of achievement, it signifies an existence of good management and vice-versa. 

OR

(i) It is a Group Effort: As per this characteristic of management, it is not a single person who consummates (completes) the whole process of management but it is a group effort. All the managers are affected by each and every decision taken in the organisation. A task can be successfully accomplished only with the collective (group) effort. For example, a company wants expansion of its business. For the fulfilment of this objective, participation of all, i.e. marketing manager, production manager, sales manager, finance manager etc. is required. So, it is right to call management a group effort. 

(ii) It is a Goal Oriented Process: Every organisation is established for the fulfilment of one or the other objective. Management acts as a medium which facilitates in achieving these objectives. A manager on the basis of his knowledge and experience anticipates future events and plans accordingly. He not only monitors the work progress of the subordinates but also guides them. Moreover, from time to time the manger motivates his subordinates and finally, in this manner, predetermined objectives are achieved.

(iii) It has a Distinct Entity: It is not possible for an owner to perform all functions himself. In other words, it can be said that in an organisation the owner (who invests money) and a manager (who manages the organisation) can be different persons.

(iv) It is an Intangible Force: Management is a force/power which is not visible/seen. It can only be felt or realised on the basis of the success of an organisation. For example, if an organisation marches ahead on the path of progress, it will be taken as a sign of good management but if an organisation is moving towards decline, it signals unsuccessful management. Hence, management can be called an Intangible force.

(v) It is a process: A process means a definite system of functioning. Management is a process which includes the activities like planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling and it is used in efficiently utilising the human and material resources for the achievement of pre-determined objectives.

(vi) It is an Inborn and Acquired Ability: According to the Traditional Concept of Management, management ability is an inborn quality which means managers are not made but born. In other words, management ability is inborn and a person inherits it and it cannot be acquired with the help of education and training. According to Modern Concept of Management, if a person does not possess the gift of in-born management ability, it can be acquired through education in management.

(vii) It is a Universal Activity: Universality is that truth which is prevalent in every sphere (Business or non-business) and is equally applicable everywhere and management too has this quality. Every business (industrial enterprise) or non-business organisation (educational institutions, govt. offices, Army clubs and social institutes) has to make an efficient use of human and material resources in order to achieve their objectives and go through a process of planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling. In this way the management activity is the same in all the types of organisations and the same principles are applied every where. [Management is not applicable in business undertakings only. It is applicable to political, social, religious and educational institutions also.]

(viii) It is Multidisciplinary: In reality management is Multidisciplinary. It means that management is a separate subject and developed from various other disciplines. In developing itself into a separate subject, it has benefitted from various disciplines like Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, Statistics, Mathematics etc. After collecting various thoughts from disciplines, management came to develop its own thoughts and principles. The integrated knowledge of different subjects has made a valuable contribution to the subject of management. It is called The foundation of management. 

(ix) It is a Social Science: Social Science is connected with human beings. Management is a social science like other social sciences- Economics, Sociology, Political Science etc. It is related to man as a social being who is sensitive, reasoning and dynamic being. The managers accept management principles for their guidance.

(x) It is a system: Now management is being looked upon as a system. It means taking various aspects of management into consideration rather than thinking about a particular single aspect. Management lays stress upon the coordination between various activities of the organisation.

(xi) It is a Dynamic System: Management is based on certain principles which are dynamic. Principles mean some basic truth which establishes a link between cause and effect. The principles of management continue changing according to the atmosphere in which an organisation functions. Because of this Continuous change in atmosphere many old principles have been replaced by new ones. Thus, no principle can be treated as final. In this context it can be said that nothing is permanent in the field of management. Because of the fear of adverse effects of these changes a manager can anticipate them before hand. He can give such a direction to the polices and planning of his organisation as not to allow these changes to affect it.

(xii) It involves social responsibility: Today, management is looked upon as a social responsibility. A manager always takes decision in the interest of the organisation. But if a particular decision takes into consideration only the interest of organisation and ignores the interest of society, it will not only endanger the existence of organisation bur ensire its downfall. In other words, no decision of the manager is acceptable which is one sided. For example, if a top-level managers takes the decision of establishing a factory in a residential area which can possibly endanger the environment, the people will threaten the very existence of the manager and the organisation. Similarly, inferior goods, high prices and improper stocking of goods may be in the interest of the organisation but any such decision is anti-social and for this society will never forgive the business enterprise (the organisation). Thus, the functions of manager are not confined to the organisation alone, he is responsible to society also.

(xiii) It is a Profession: These days management is popular as a profession. Now nobody is made a manager in a business organisation simply because he has invested capital in it or he is related to such a person but he is appointed as manager simply because he has the requisite ability and qualifications. On this basis managers have come to be recognized as professionals like doctors, lawyers and teachers.

(xiv) It is both Science and Art: Management possesses the qualities of both science and art. Science refers to a systimatic body of knowledge which is acquired on the basis of observation and experiments and verification of this knowledge is possible. Management is called science because like science it has its own definite principles which are applied everywhere. For example, the principle of division of labour and specialisation is applied every where. This principle is based on the fact that if work is divided according to the ability and taste, and some person is given the same work repeatedly, he gains proficiency in his work performance. On the other hand, Art means a system of doing something in a disciplined or organised manner. It refers to the practical application of existing knowledge skillfully. Management is described as an art as an efficient manager tries to function in organised or systematic manner by establishing coordination between human and material resources. [Management is a science as it follows well established principles which are universally applicable. Management is a social science as it deals with people. On the other hand, management is an art as it involves getting things done through people. Art is an inborn talent and requires skill. Managers as an artist needs to be creative and should have skill to get work done through people to organisational objectives.

Communication barriers & how to overcome

 Q. What do you mean by communication barriers? Explain different types of barriers in brief.

Or
What are the barriers to communication? Give suggestions to overcome these barriers.

Ans. MEANING OF COMMUNICATION BARRIERS: Barriers basically refers to the hurdles or hindrances which obstructs the communication. By barriers, we mean hindrances or obstructions discovered from external, organizational and personal factors. These barriers to communication must be identified and removed for effective communication in an organization.

TYPES OF BARRIERS: Barriers of communication can be classified as under:
1. Semantic or Language Barriers: Semantic is the study of words or their meanings. The semantic barriers are those barriers which are related to language. The chief semantic or language related barriers are as under:

i) Wrongly Expressed Message: Because of complexity of language, there is always a possibility of wrong interpretation of the messages. This barrier is created because of the wrong choice of words, the wrong sequence of sentences and frequent repetitions. When the listener or reader draws different meanings of a word than the writer or the speaker; there arises a barrier.

ii) Faulty Translation: A manager receives much information from his superiors and subordinates and he translates it for the concerned employees acording to their level of understanding. Hence, the information has to be moulded according to the understanding of the receiver. If there is little carelessness in this process, the faulty translation can be a barrier in the communication.

iii) Unclarified assumptions: It has been observed that sometimes a sender takes it for granted that the receiver knows some basic things and therefore, it is enough to tell him about the major subject matter. This point of view of the sender is correct to some extent with reference to the daily communication, but it is absolutely wrong in case of some special message.

iv) Use of Technical Language: Some people like engineers, quality controllers, etc. do technical work. They have their separate technical language. Their communication is not so simple as to be understood by everybody. Hence, technical language can be a barrier to communication.

2. Organisational Barriers: Organizational barriers refer to obstacles that hinder the flow of communication within an organization affecting the capability of employees. Organisational structure greatly, affects the capability of employees so far as communication is concerned. Some major organisational hindrances in the way of communication are:

i) Organisational Policies: Organisational policies determine the relationship among all the persons working in the enterprise. For example, it can be the policy of the organisation that communication will be in the-written form. If this message can be expressed in a few word, it will take Iittle time. If the message is transmitted in writing it takes some time. Consequently, work gets delayed.

ii) Organisational rules: Organisational rules become barriers in communication by determining the subject-matter, medium, etc., of communication. Annoyed by the definite rules, the senders hesitate to send some of the messages.

iii) Status Relationship: In an organisation, all the employees are divided into many categories on the basis of their level. This formal division acts as a barrier in communication especially when the communication moves from the bottom to the top of the organisation.

iv) Complexity in Organisational Structure: More number of levels in an organisation results in delay in communication and information gets changed before it reaches the receiver. In other words negative things or criticisms are concealed. Thus, more the number of managerial levels in an organisation, more ineffective the communication becomes.

v) Less Organisational Facilities: Organisational facilities mean making
available sufficient stationery, telephone, translator, etc. Where these facilities are lacking in an organisation, communication will not be timely, clear and in accordance with necessity.

3. Personal Barriers: There are some barriers which are directly connected with the sender and receiver. They are called personal barriers. They have been divided into two parts:
I) Barriers related to Superiors: These barriers are as follows:

i) Attitude of Superiors: The attitude of top level superiors directly affects the flow of communication. If the attitude of superiors toward communication is unfavorable or they give no importance to communication, then it will be a barrier.

ii) Fear of Position: Everybody desires to occupy a high office/position in an organisation. In this hope, officers try to conceal their weaknesses by not communicating their ideas.

iii) Insistence (force, जिद) on Proper Channel: The top level superiors remain connected through communication with a view to getting their authority implemented. They do not like any irregularity in communication, when sometimes it is not possible to follow the proper channel of communication, particularly when the work has got to be done quickly. They consider such a situation against their authority and finally, they become a barrier in communication.

iv) Shortage of Time: The top level superiors feel that they are overburdened with excessive work and because of this they do not pay much attention to communication.

v) Lack of Attention: Sometimes top level superiors do not pay adequate
attention to the importance and utility of communication. As a result, the flow of communication gets hindered. Consequently , work performance gets delayed, and the enterprise has to face much inconvenience.

II) Barriers related to Subordinates: Subordinates related barriers are as under:

i) Unwillingness to Communicate: Sometimes the subordinates do not want to send any information to their superiors. When the subordinates feel that the information is of negative nature and will adversely affects them, an effort is made to conceal that information. If it becomes imperative to send this information, it is sent in a modified or amended form. Thus the subordinates, by not stating the facts, become a hindrance in communication.

ii) Lack of Proper Incentive: Lack of incentives to the subordinates creates a hindrance in communication. This is because of the fact that their suggestions or ideas are not given any importance. If the superiors ignore the subordinates, they become indifferent towards any exchange of ideas in future.

4. Emotional or Perceptional Barriers: The importance of communication depends on the mental condition of both the parties. A mentally disturbed party can be a hindrance in communieation. Following are the emotional barriers in the way of
communication:
i) Premature Evaluation: Sometimes the receiver of information tries to dig out meanings without much thinking at the time of receiving or even before receiving information, which can be wrong. This type of evaluation is a hindrance in the exchange of information and the enthusiasm of the sender gets dampened (reduced).

ii) Emotional Attitude: Some people are emotional by nature and lose their mental balance quickly and easily. If a superior happens to get agitated quickly, his communication, howsoever authentic it may be, remains ineffective. Similarly, if a receiver of the message is mentally upset or disturbed he will find unfavourable meaning in it.

iii) Poor Retention of Information: Poor retention of information means that with every transfer of information its reality gets reduced. According to an estimate, in oral communication there is a loss of 30% in every transfer of information. This is because of our carelessness. Hence, transfer of information being not in its actual reality is a big hindrance in communication.

5. Physical Barriers: Physical barriers are those barriers which are caused due to the faulty physical conditions. These barriers cause a lot of noise These include insufficiently insulated rooms from outside noises such as those of traffic filtering through, poor lighting, a typewriter clattering away in a nearby office and such like things as frequent movement of body posture, fiddling with a pen in the hand or even the arrival of coffee at a critical stage of an on going communication. 

Suggestions to overcome barriers to communication: It is essential to remove barriers in the way of communication keeping in view the importance of communication in a business organisation. Following steps are worth taking for the removal of barriers to communication:

i) Think about purpose and audience: The first step is to define goal in communicating. You must create a bridge of words that leads listeners or readers from their current position to your point. Before you can do this, of course, you have to know something about their current position.

(2) Tell the audience what you expect: After you have defined your readers' or listeners' needs, Let them know the purpose of the message (thus helping them recognize the relationship among the ideas you hope to convey), and tell them what main points they will encounter on the way (so that they can organize them into a rational framework). Even if you do not want to reveal controversial ideas at the beginning of the message, you can still give receivers a preview of the topics you plan to cover.

(3) Use of easy language: The language used in the communication should be simple, understandable and of the level of the receiver. The best way to do this is to balance the general concepts with specific illustrations. At the beginning, state the overall idea; then develop that idea by using vivid, concrete (real) examples. The most momorable words are the ones that create a picture in the receiver's mind by describing colors, objects, scents sounds and tastes. Specific details can also be very vivid (life like).

(4) Stick to the point: You can also help your audience by eliminating any information that does not directly contribute to your purpose. Many business messages contain too much material. But most receivers do not need everything. All they need are a few pertinent facts, enough information to answer their questions or facilitate their decisions by eliminating unnecessary ideas, you focus the other person's thoughts on those few points that really matter.

(5) Connect new information to existing ideas: By showing the audience how new ideas relate to familiar ones, you increase the likelihood that your message will be understood correctly. The meaning of the new concept is clarified by its relationship to the old. The receiver already has a wealth of information on the subject; all she or he has to do is apply it to the new idea.

Most of us approach anything unfamiliar with caution. When we discover that it is similar to something familiar, we become more confident. We accept this new idea and work on it more carefully.

(6) Emphasize and review key points: Call attention is the most important points of the message. You can do this with your words, your format and your body language. Underscore key points by calling attention to them visually. Use headlines, body type, and intended lists to emphasize major ideas. Re-inforce the text of your message by using charts, graphs, maps, diagrams and illustrations. If you are delivering the message orally, use your body and voice to highlight important concepts.

Before you conclude your message, review one or two of its essential points. Restate the purpose and then show how the main ideas relate to it.

It is a good idea to provide summaries at the end of major sections of a long message as well as at the end of a document or presentation. Such summaries not only refresh people's memories but also help simplify the overall meaning of complex material.

(7) Minimize noise: To the extent possible, you should try to eliminate potential sources of interference that stand between you and your audience. The key to getting through to the receiver often lies in the choice of communication channels and media. You should choose the method that will most likely attract the receiver's attention and enable him or her to concentrate on the message.

(8) Physically appealing written document: A written document seems the best choice, try to make it physically appealing and easy to comprehend. Use an attractive, convenient format and pay attention to such details as the choice of paper and quality of type. If possible, deliver the document when you know the reader will have time to study it.

(9) Eliminate environmental competition: If the message is to be delivered orally try to minimise environmental difficulties. The location should be comfortable and quiet with sufficient lighting and good sound system. Your own personality should be attractive to the audience to influence them. The more people who interfere in your message, the greater are the chances of its getting distorted. Thus, oral messages should have least interference on the part of the people.

(10) Facilitate feedback: Give the receiver a chance to provide feedback. If you are talking face-to-face with other person, feedback is immediate and clear. But if you are writing a letter, memo or report that will be read by several people, feedback will be delayed and mixed. Choose a form of communication that suits your needs. Some channels and media are more compatible with feedback than others. For example, if you want to send our message quickly, you must talk to the receiver face-to-face or by phone. If feedback is less important to you, you can use a written document or give a prepared speech.

In short, business communication is especially prone to misunderstandings because the message is complex, conditions are difficult and psychological or social differences often separate the sender and receiver. To overcome communication barriers, think about your audience, let them know what to expect, use vivid language, stick to the point that connects new ideas to familiar ones, emphasize and review key points, minimize noise, and provide opportunities for feedback.

meaning, characteristics and uses of accounting

 Q. Define Accounting. Explain the characteristics and uses of accounting.

Ans. MEANING OF ACCOUNTING: Accounting is the art of recording, classifying, summarising and communicating financial information to users for correct decision making. It gives information on:
(i) resources available
(ii) how the available resources have been employed
(iii) the results achieved by their use.
Since accounting is a medium of communication, it is called The language of business. 

DEFINITION OF ACCOUNTING: According to American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (A.I.C.P.A.), “Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarising in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part atleast, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACCOUNTING: Following are the characteristics of accounting:
i) Accounting is an art as well as science: Art is the technique of attaining some pre-determined objectives. Accounting is an art of recording, classifying and summarising business transactions with a view to ascertain the net profit and financial position of the business enterprise.
        Any organised body of knowledge which is based on certain specified principles is called science. In this respect accounting is also a science since it is also an organised body of knowledge based on certain specified principles and accounting standards.

ii) Recording of Transaction of financial character: Only those transactions and events are recorded which are of a financial character and which can be expressed in terms of money. Hence, accounting involves the identifying of transactions and events that are considered of financial character and relate to the enterprise.

iii) Recording in terms of money: Each transaction is recorded in the books in terms of money only. For example, if business possesses ₹50,000 in Cash; Land measuring 2,000 metres; 5 trucks; 5 machines; 10 ton of raw materials; and so on. These cannot be added up and hence cannot give any useful information. But if they are expressed in terms of money, they will provide useful information such as, Cash ₹50,000; Land ₹2 crore; Trucks ₹50,00,000; Machines ₹20,00,000.

iv) Classifying: After recording the transactions in the books of accounts, the transactions are classified. Classification is the process of grouping the transactions of one nature at one place in a separate account. The book in which various accounts are opened is called ledger.

v) Summarising: Summarising is the art of presenting the classified data in a manner which is understandable and useful to management and other users of such data. This involves the balancing the ledgers and the preparation of trial balance and financial statements.

vi) Interpreting the results: Interpreting refers to explaining the results of business in such a manner that interested parties can make a meaningful Judgement (can have a full information) about profitability and financial position of the business.

vii) Communicating: It refers to transmission of summarised and interpreted information to the users who have an interest in the business enterprise to enable them to make reasoned decisions.

USES OF ACCOUNTING: Accounting is useful in following ways:
i) Useful in Management of Business: Management needs a lot of
information for the efficient running of the business. All such information is provided
by the accounting which helps the management in planning, decision making and controlling. For example management would like to know whether the sales are
increasing or decreasing and also the speed of increase in the cost of production. All such information is provided by the accounting, which helps the management in estimating the future sales and expenses. 

ii) Provides Complete and Systematic Record : Business transactions have grown in size and complexity and it is not possible to remember each and every transaction. Accounting keeps a prompt and systematic record of all the transactions and summarizes them in order to provide a true picture of the activities of the business entity.

iii) Information Regarding Profit or Loss : Accounting reports the net result of business activities of an accounting period. The Profit & Loss Account prepared at
the end of each accounting period discloses the net profit earned or loss suffered during that period. The information regarding profit is of great use to the owners and various other interested parties.

iv) Information Regarding Financial Position: Accounting reports the
financial position of the business by preparing a Balance Sheet at the end of each accounting period.

v) Evidence in Legal matters: Properly maintained accounts, supported by authenticated documents are accepted by the courts as a firm evidence.

vi) Facilitates Comparative Study: By keeping a systematic record, accounting helps the owners to compare one year's costs, expenses, sales and profit etc. with those of other years. Such a comparison provides the useful informations on the basis of which important decisions can be taken more judiciously.

vii) Facilitates in Assessment of Tax Liability: Properly maintained records will be of great help when the firm is assessed to income tax or sales tax. Such records
when audited are trusted by the taxation authorities.

viii) Facilitates Sale of Business: If a business entity is being sold, the
accounting information can be utilised to determine the proper purchase price.

ix) Helpful in Raising Loans: Accounting information is of great help while
raising loans from banks or other financial institutions. Such institutions before
sanctioning loan screen various financial statements of the firm such as final accounts, fund flow statement, cash flow statement etc.

x) Helpful in Prevention and Detection of Errors and Frauds.  

Sitaar aur uske bhaag ya ang

 प्र. सितार के भाग व बजाने की विधि लिखें।

या 

 सितार के भाग व तार को मिलाने की विधि लिखें।

सितार और उसके अंग 

उ. उत्तर भारतीय संगीत में सितार काफी लोकप्रिय है। पाश्-चन्य देशो में भी इसका प्रचार धीरे-धीरे बढ़ रहा है। इसकी मधुरता शीघ्र ही श्रोताओ को अपनी ओर आकर्षित कर लेती है। पं. रविशंकर जी ने पाश्-चन्य देशो में सितार को खूब लोकप्रिय बनाया। 

सितार के आविष्कार के विषय में अनेक मतभेद है। कुछ लोग अमीर खुसरो के द्वारा इसका आविष्कार मानते है। कहते है कि सहतार नामक वाद्-य जिसके तीन तार होते थे, के आधार पर सितार का आविष्कार किया गया। 

(सितार की बनावट को समझने के लिए इसके अंगो पर विचार करना आवश्यक है।)X

Sitaar aur uske bhaag ya ang

सितार के अंग 

1) तूम्बा:- सितार का नीचे का भाग का गोलाकार भाग जो लौकी या कद्-दू जैसा बना होता है। इससे सितार की आवाज में गूंज पैदा होती है। 

2) तबली:- तूंबा का थोड़ा भाग काटकर उसे पतली लकड़ी से ढक दिया जाता है। इसे तबली कहते है। 

3) घुड़च: इसी तबली पर घुड़च की तारे अटकी रहती है। इसे Bride भी कहते है।) तबली के ऊपर लकड़ी या हाथी के दाँत की चांकी टिकी रहती है। जिस पर सितार की तारे रखी जाती है। इसे घुड़च कहते है। 

4) कील: तूम्बे के निचले सिरे पर लकड़ी या हड्-डी की कील लगाते है। इस कील से तारे बंधी होती है।

5) डांड: सितार के तूंबे से लकड़ी की खोखली डांड जुड़ी होती है। जिस पर सितार के पर्दे बांधे जाते है। 

6) गुलू: यह वह स्थान है जहाँ तूंबा और डांड जुड़ते है।

7) मनका: सितार की बाज की तार में कील और घुड़च के बीच में जो मोती पिरोया जाता है उसको मनका कहते है। 

8) परदे: सितार के डांड के ऊपर पीतल अथवा जर्मन सिल्वर के अर्ध चन्द्रकार टुकड़े ताँत द्वारा बाँधे जाते है। इनकी संख्या 16 से 19 के बीच होती है। इन्हें पर्दे कहते है। 

9) तारगहन: खूँटियों के पास हाथी दाँत की पट्टियां लगी रहती है। जिस पट्टी में तारों को पिरोया जाता है। उसे तारगहन कहते है। 

10) अट्-टी/अट्टी: तारगहन के पास दूसरी पट्-टी/पट्टी जिस पर से तार रखे जाते है। अट्टी कहलाती है। 

11)  खूँटिया: डाँड के ऊपरी भाग में सात बड़ी खूँटिया लगी होती है। जिनसे सात तारों को बाँधा जाता है। खूँटियों को कस कर या ढीला कर के ही तारो को स्वर में लाया जाता है।

सितार की वादन शैली 

सितार बजाते समय सितार को इस प्रकार रखा जाता है कि सितार का पिछला हिस्सा वादक की तरफ रहे। दाँए हाथ को तूँबे के पास डाँड के ऊपर रखा जाता है। तथा पहली ऊँगली में मिजराफ पहन कर दिर, दा, रा, द्रा आदि बोल निकाले जाते हैं। 

1) दा- जब मिजराफ बाहर से लाते हुए तार पर प्रहार करते है और ऊँगली अपनी ओर खींच लेते है तो दा का बोल निकलता है। 

2) रा- इसके विपरीत जब तार पर आघात करते हुए ऊँगली अंदर से बाहर जाती है तो रा का बोल निकलता है।

3) दिर- शीघ्रता (तेजी) से दा,रा बजाने को दिर का बोल निकलता है।

4) दार- दा बजाने के बाद रा का आधा समय छोड़ देने पर शेष आधे समय में र बजाने पर दार का बोल निकलता है।

बाएं हाथ को डाँड पर इस प्रकार रखा जाता है कि उंगलियाँ पर्दे पर रहती है तथा अंगूठा डाँड के पीछे रहता है। 

    स्वर निकालने के लिए मिजराफ से बारे को छोड़ने के साथ ही पर्दे पर तार को दबाया जाता है। जिससे स्वर उत्पन्न होता है।

Sitaar aur uske bhaag ya ang

Sangeet Ratnakar

 संगीत रत्नाकर 

संगीत रत्नाकर भारतीय संगीत का प्राचीन एवं प्रसिद्ध ग्रंथ है। यह ग्रंथ उत्तरी और दक्षिणी संगीत पद्धति का आधार ग्रंथ माना जाता है। इस ग्रंथ को पं. शारंग देव जी ने सात भागों में विभाजित किया है। सात अध्याय इस प्रकार है-

1. स्वर अध्याय 

2. विवेका अध्याय 

3. प्रकीर्णध्याय

4. प्रबन्धाध्याय

5. तालाध्याय

6. वाद्याध्याय

7. नृत्याध्याय

1. ग्रंथ परिचय: पं. शारंग देव ने अपने ग्रंथ में सदाशिव-पार्वती, भरत, मतंग आदि ग्रंथकारो का उल्लेख किया है।

2. संगीत लक्ष्ण: इस ग्रंथ में संगीत दो भेद मार्गी और देशी जाने जाते हैं।  

3. नाद: पं. शारंग देव जी गीत, वाद्य और नृत्य को नादात्मक मानते है। नाद से वर्ण, वर्ण से पद, और पद से वाक्य बनते है।नाद के दो भेद है- आहत नाद और अनाहत नाद।

4. श्रुति: इन्होंने 22 श्रुतियाँ मानी है और 22 श्रुतियों को प्रभावित करने के लिए श्रुति साधना सरंचना का विवरण दिया है। 

5. स्वर: स्वर की परिभाषा में शारंग देव जी लिखते हैं कि श्रुति के बाद उत्पन्न होने वाले रंजक नाद स्वर कहलाता है। 22 श्रुतियों पर 7 शुद्ध स्वर माने हैं और 12 विकृत स्वरों को मिलाकर 19 स्वर माने है। 

6. वादी, संवादी, विवादी और अनुवादी: जिस स्वर का राग में बहुत प्रयोग होता है, उसे वादी स्वर।  जिस स्वर का प्रयोग वादी से थोड़ा कम हो वह संवादी स्वर। जिस स्वर का प्रयोग उसके अतिरिक्त हो उन्हें अनुवादी स्वर तथा जिस स्वर का प्रयोग राग में वर्जित हो उसे विवादी स्वर कहते है। 

7. ग्राम: ग्राम की परिभाषा में पंडित शारंग देव जी लिखते हैं कि मूर्च्छना का आधार स्वर ग्राम कहलाता है। यह तीन प्रकार के है-

1. षडज ग्राम

2. मध्यम ग्राम

3. गंधार ग्राम

8. मूर्च्छना: सात स्वरों के क्रमानुसार आरोह-अवरोह करने को मूर्च्छना कहते है। षडज और मध्यम ग्राम की सात-सात मूर्च्छनाएँ मानी। 

9. वर्ण: गाने की क्रिया को वर्ण कहते है। यह चार प्रकार के होते है:- 

1. स्थाई वर्ण 

2. आरोही वर्ण 

3. अवरोही वर्ण 

4. संचारी वर्ण

10. अलंकार: पंडित जी विशेष वर्ण समुद्र को अलंकार कहते है। उनके अनुसार अलंकार का प्रयोग गायन वादन में रंजकता बढ़ाता है। और स्वरो की सही स्थिति का ज्ञान करवाता है। 

11. थाट: शारंग देव जी ने शुद्ध थाट काफी माना है परंतु आजकल शुद्ध थाट बिलावल है।

12. जाति लक्षण: इन्होंने भरत द्वारा निर्धारित 10 लक्षणों में सन्यास, विन्यास, अंतर मार्ग को जोड़कर जाति के 13 लक्षण माने। जैसे: ग्रह, अंश, न्यास, आदि।

13. वाद्य: पंडित जी ने वाद्यों को उनके उपयोग के अनुसार चार भागों में बांटा है-

i) तत्वाद्य

ii) सुषि वाद्य

iii) अवनद वाद्य

iv) धन वाद्य 

14. ताल: इस अध्याय में पंडित ने उस समय की प्रचलित तालों के बारे में बताया है। इन सभी तालों को प्रभु के लिए गाने वाले मार्गी और देशी तालो मे विभाजित किया है। 

वास्तव में पं. शारंगदेव जी ने संगीत रत्नाकर की रचना करके एक अद्भुत कार्य किया है।

संगीत पारिजात Sangeet Parijat

 संगीत परिजात Sangeet Parijat 

‘संगीत परिजात’ ग्रंथ 1650 पंडित अहोबल जी द्+वारा लिखा गया जिसका अनुवाद फारसी में पं. दीनानाथ ने 1924 में किया। यह ग्रंथ 17वीं शताब्दी का महान ग्रंथ माना जाता है। पंडित अहोबल जी पहले संगीतकार थे जिन्होंने संगीत परिजात में वर्ण पर स्वर स्थापना निश्-चित करने के लिए एक नई पद्धति बनाई। 

ग्रंथ मंगला चरण से शुरू होता है। इसमे कुल 8 अध्याय हैं:- स्वर, ग्राम, मूर्च्छना, स्वर विस्तार, वर्ण, जाति, समय और राग प्रकरण। संगीत परिजात में कुल 500 श्लोक हैं। 8 अध्याय इस प्रकार है:

1. स्वर अध्याय- इस अध्याय में नाद की उत्पत्ति और उसके दो भेदों के बारे में बताया है। स्वर और श्रुति में स्वर को साँप और उसकी कुंडली को श्रुति बताया गया है। 22 श्रुतियों को 5 भागो में बाँटा  गया है। स्वरों, रागो और रसों के बारे में बताया गया है।

2. ग्राम अध्याय: पंडित अहोबल जी ने अपने ग्रंथ में लिखा है- स्वरो का समूह ही ग्राम कहलाता है। यह मूर्च्छना का आधार होता है। उन्होंने 3 ग्राम बताए है:-

i) षड्ज ग्राम 

ii) मध्यम ग्राम 

iii) गन्धार ग्राम 

षड्ज ग्राम को सबसे उत्तम माना है। राग दो ग्रामों पर षड्ज और मध्यम पर आश्रित है। गन्धार के बारे में वह स्वर्ग लोक में ग्राम होता है।

3. मूर्च्छना अध्याय: मूर्च्छना के बारे में पंडित अहोबल जो लिखते है जब ग्राम के स्वरों में आरोह-अवरोह किया जाए तो उसे मूर्च्छना कहते है। मूर्च्छना ग्राम पर आधारित है। उस समय ग्राम ही प्रचार में थे। हर  ग्राम की सात-सात मूर्च्छनाएँ होती है।

4. स्वर विस्तार अध्याय: इस अध्याय में स्वर की परिभाषा इस प्रकार लिखते है "जो अपने आप ही सुनने वाले के चित्त को आकर्षित करते हैं, वे स्वर कहलाते है।" पंडित जी स्वर के दो भेद मानते हैं:- शुद्ध और विकृत। रागों में प्रत्यक्ष रूप से 12 विकृत स्वर माने है।

5. जाति अध्याय: इस अध्याय में सात शुद्ध जातियाँ षडजा, गन्धारी, मध्यमा, पंचम, धैवती, निषादी का परिचय दिया गया है। इसमे गमक के बारे में भी बताया/समझाया गया है।

6. समय अध्याय: इस अध्याय में पंडित जी ने वीणा पर स्वरों की स्थापना के बारे में बताया है। पंडित जी ने अपने समय के लोकप्रिय रागों के गायन का समय भी लिखा है जैसे रागतोड़ी का गायन समय दिन का पहला प्रहार है। भैरवी राग हर समय गाया जा सकता है। 

7. राग अध्याय: इस अध्याय में लिखते है कि राग तो बहुत से गाए हैं पर मैंने 125 रागो का वर्णन किया है। आपने वादी, सम्वादी, अनुवादी और विवादी स्वरों की भी परिभाषा दी है। वे आधुनिक परिभाषा के समान है।

8. वर्ण अध्याय: इस अध्याय में पंडित जी कहते है कि गायन की क्रिया को वर्ण कहते है। यह 4 प्रकार के है: स्थाई, आरोही, अवरोही, संचारी।

अलंकार के बारे में भी वर्णन किया है। इन्हीं अलंकारों से राग सजाए जाते है। 

सारांश: ये ग्रंथ आधुनिक संगीत से बहुत संबंध रखता है इसलिए पंडित जी को इस अनमोल भेंट को संगीत जगत कभी भी भूला नहीं सकता।