Material Management: Functions, Challenges.

 Q. Discuss the functions of ‘Materials Management’. Mention the challenges of Materials Management in today’s competitive business. 

Ans. Materials management is ideal for industries who track the flow and manage the materials in their enterprises. The functions of materials management are as follows: 

1) Material Requirement Planning: The material require planning includes production scheduling and inventory control. It is a control system through which adequate inventory levels can be maintained to assure the adequate and required material can be provided as and when needed. This is not suitable for job shops or for continuous processes that are tightly linked with each other. MRP system meets the following three objectives:

i) To ensure that materials are available for production and products are available for delivery to customers.

ii) To maintain lowest possible level of inventory.

iii) To plan manufacturing activities, delivery schedules and purchasing activities.

Or 

The basic function of material management is material requirement planning. This planning can be done with the help of computer and it includes production and inventory control scheduling.

2) Purchasing or Procuring of Materials: The materials department is supposed to provide the right material at right time in right quantity at right price. The department should procure the material from the right source. For this the materials department is to select the best sources of supply from the available alternatives. 

3) Storage of Materials: Once the material is received, its physical control, preservation, minimization of obsolescence, loss or theft or damage should be safeguarded through efficient handling. Proper records should be maintained and stocking is done in stores at proper locations. Storing function also includes inspection of material purchased and issuing of materials. This function also includes coding of items, preparing indexes showing code number and place or room number or godown number or cupboard number or preparation of bin-cards etc. 

Or 

The storage of various types of materials and spare parts as inventory is very important before delivering it to the end users and to different production centres for use by them. Proper records....... same as above.

4) Issue of Materials: Issue of materials mean supply of material from store to those various departments of the organisation who demands it. For this purpose, the department is to submit requisition slip to the store. On the basis of requisition slip, the storekeeper will issue the material to the concerned department.

5) Inventory Control: Inventory control involves the procurement, care and disposition of materials. Inventory includes raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods. The reasons for inventory control may be for maintaining the continuity of production and sale, minimising the stock-out cost, controlling the investment of working capital in stock, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the sufficient goods on one hand to avoid stock-outs and the safeguard the wastage of material on the other to protect the capital. Different techniques like EOQ, minimum and maximum stock levels, reorder level, ABC analyses, stock register, etc., can be followed. The process of inventory control involves the following:

(i) Determination of optimum levels of inventory,

(ii) Determination of level of control required.

(iii) Designing the inventory control system

(iv) Establishing the inventory control organisation.

6) Material Handling: After receiving the materials, the stores incharge has to check the weight and inspect the quality of them. If it is found right, then he stores them properly so that it can be issued to factory when needed for production. Material handling involves movement, packaging, transfer and delivery of materials starting from receiving of materials to final distribution of finished goods to consumers.

7) Disposal of Scrap: Scrap is the waste that either has no economic value or only the value of its basic material content by selling that. It includes wastage, spoilage, used and repairable tools, oils, equipment, etc. In addition, it also includes the obsolete parts. It is the duty of the materials manager to dispose off or selling of those materials by inviting tenders from scrap dealers or through auction.

8) Vendor Evaluation and Vendor Rating: Under this system, evaluation of a supplier is

done through recording and ranking of performance in terms of a variety of issues including quality of materials and delivery performance. This process is necessary for effective purchasing. Vendor rating is the result of a formal vendor valuation system vendors or suppliers are given standing, status or title according to their attainment of some level of performance such as delivery, lead time, quality, price, etc. The purpose of vendor rating is to improve the quality level of the suppliers performance and to use the results of the evaluation in the qualification system and when awarding contracts.

9) Purchase Analysis and Research: Analysis  and research in the purchase is the systematic investigation of all related aspects. It also includes the investigation of all sources of supply and selection of best and suitable material from the various available materials. This function also includes the analysis and research of the fact that how the prices of materials can be reduced and the quality can be improved. What can be the alternative sources of supply in case of short supply of material, etc.

10) Transport and Traffic Management: Materials manager supervise many aspects of transportation systems including planning, logistics, maintenance and repair. These managers focus on getting materials, people and goods from one place to another while considering safety, efficiency and cost. Transport management helps in enlarging the market for finished goods. Under the transport management, the materials manager has to arrange the safe, rapid and economical transportation for incoming and outgoing materials. It will help in increasing the number of perfect orders, improve the quality of customer service, etc.

CHALLENGES OF MATERIALS MANAGEMENT: The materials management has to face the following challenges: 

1) What to Stock?: The first and the most important challenge faced by materials management is what items need to be stocked? Which items are available on demand and which are not available. Whether the goods can be arranged from alternative vendors or not. 

2) How Much to Stock?: After deciding the goods to be stocked the materials manager has to decide how much stock is to be maintained in the store. For this purpose, they have to calculate minimum and maximum inventory levels, reorder points safety stocks economic order quantity, etc., for each type of raw material separately. 

3) Inventory Turnover: Inventory turnover ratio is very important from the view point

of profitability and liquidity. Higher ratio indicates that the less amount is locked up in inventory and as quickly as the stock is converted into sales, it will result in profits. Therefore materials management has to fix the desired turnover ratio. They also have to develop the techniques for improving the ratio without impacting maintenance and operations.

4) Forecasting of Demand: Materials planning is done on the basis of short-term sales forecast. Hence the materials planners have to always find out how much material will be required because neither the material supply should be in short nor in excess.

5) Government Policies: If the material is to be imported from other countries. Then the materials department may have to depend on the import policy of the government, foreign exchange availability, credit availability, etc.

6) Scarce Financial Resources: Scarce financial resource is the another challenge for materials management as on the one hand money/finance is limited and on the other hand sufficient material should be available for production on right time. Thus the materials manager has to maintain the balance between the two and has to arrange the material within limited resources.

7) Storage Space: Storage space is the another challenge for materials management. As everyone knows the prices of land and building are rising, therefore the management may allocate a little space for storage. The materials manager has to keep the stock of raw-materials and spare parts in the allocated space.

8) Obsolete and Surplus Material: The presence of obsolete and surplus material is a problem for all the companies. Obsolete materials may exist due to change in engineering activities. Whereas surplus material may be due to over procurement, uncontrolled production operations and inefficiency. In both the cases firm has to bear the expenses for space as well as for wastage of material. The materials manager has to plan for reducing such type of costs.

9) Selection of Appropriate Vendors: The another challenge for materials manager is the selection of appropriate vendors. Evaluation of suppliers is a process that leads companies to select their desired suppliers. It has two objectives, to reduce all costs of purchasing and to increase the overall value of engineering. Thus the materials manager has to maintain a balance between the cost and quality.

10) Managing Information: The materials manager has to keep himself updated always regarding new materials, new spare parts, new machinery, new techniques so that they could be implemented in the organisation.

Discuss the functions of ‘Materials Management’. Mention the challenges of Materials Management in today’s competitive business. 

Best Judgement Assessment.

Q. What is meant by the expression ‘Best Judgement Assessment’? Under what circumstances can recourse be had to this method of assessment? Are there any remedy open to the assessee against such assessment? 

Ans. MEANING OF BEST JUDGEMENT ASSESSMENT: In Best Judgement Assessment, assessing officer should really base the assessment on the best of his judgement. The law states he must act honestly not vindictively (बदला लेते हुए). He must make fair estimate of the income for the proper assessment. For that, he must be able to take into consideration the local knowledge and repute in regard of assessee’s circumstances and his own knowledge regarding previous returns and assessments of the assessee and other matters which he thinks will help him in making proper assessment. It is purely a guess work. It is also known as ex-parte assessment. If appeal is file against Best Judgement Assessment, the assessing officer shall have to disclose the basis of a judgement befote appellate authority. 

Best Judgement Assessment can be compulsory or discretionary. 

Compulsory Best Judgement Assessment: Sec. 144 empowers the Assessing Officer to make assessment to the best of his judgement in the following circumstances:

(i) Where assessee has failed to file voluntarily return u/s 139(1) or no return has been made in response of the notice of the Assessing Officer.

(ii) Where there has been failure to comply with the terms of notice issued u/s 142(1) requesting the assessee to produce the books of accounts or he fails to get his accounts audited u/s 142(2A).

(iii) To verify the correctness of the return, assessing officer serve the notice upon the assessee u/s 143(2) asking him to attend the office or to produce the evidences in support of the return but the assessee does not comply with the terms of such notice. 

Consequences of Best Judgement Assessment: There are four consequences of a Best Judgement Assessment: 

(i) The assessee becomes liable to penalties u/s 272A. 

(ii) The assessee becomes liable to prosecution u/s 276CC and 276D.

(iii) A refund may not be granted.

(iv) The assessee is prevented (रोक दिया जाता है) from bringing on record any new facts before the appellate authority if appeal is filed under best judgement assessment. 

Remedies against Best Judgement Assessment: If assessee is in opinion or feels that excess tax has been imposed by the assessing officer then–

(i) He can appeal to the Commissioner (appeal) against the order of assessing officer.

(ii) He can appeal to the Tribunal against the order of Commissioner (appeal).

(iii) He may go to high court.

(iv) He may apply to the Commissioner for revision.

Discretionary Best Judgement Assessment: If assessing officer is in the opinion that the accounts maintained by the assessee are incorrect or no proper system employ for maintaining accounts ot income has not been computed in proper way, he can make the assessment at his own discretion.

Define an Entrepreneur. Explain the characteristics and functions of entrepreneur.

 Q. Define an Entrepreneur. Explain the characteristics and functions of entrepreneur.

Ans. MEANING OF ENTREPRENEUR: The word ‘Entrepreneur’ is derived from the French word ‘entreprendre’ which means to undertake. Thus, entrepreneur is the person who undertakes the risk of new enterprise. 

The meaning of the term entrepreneur varies from person to person and from period to period. To a layman, an entrepreneur is a person who starts his own budiness or industry and organises different factors of production and marketing processes for the purpose of earning profits. It has also different meaning from different area of subject. To an economist, an entrepreneur is a person who combines the different factors of production for enhancing his values and initiates changes. To a psychologists, he is a person who ventures in the dark and deep area of uncertainty and unknown opportunities and explores new possibilities. To a businessman, he is a person who peruses his capabilities aggressively and explores new opportunities amidst changing environment. In many countries, the entrepreneur is often associated with a person who starts his own new and small business. Business may be manufacturing, transport, trade and other self employed vocations in the service sector. 

DEFINITION OF AN ENTREPRENEUR: An entrepreneur is someone who utilises land & labour, invests in capital and resources and aims at producing goods or delivering services. 

1) Richard Cantillon was the first person to use the term entrepreneur to refer to economic activities. He defined an entrepreneur as– “An entrepreneur is the agent who buys factors of production at a certain price in order to combine these into a product with a view to sell it at uncertain prices.” 

2) According to F.H. Knight, “Entrepreneurs are a specialised group of persons who bear risk and deal with uncertainty.” 

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR: Some common characteristics of the entrepreneur can be commitment, leadership, risk bearing, motivator, confident etc. The important features are as follows:

1) Calculated Risk Taker: Every business situation involves the possibility of profit or loss. An entrepreneur always goes for a calculated risk taker. He accepts the risk as a challenge. He acoids the low risk situation due to absence of challenge but ar the same time he does not involve himself in highly risky situation as he knows the chances of failure. He maintains the balance between two situations and goes for achievable/affordable challenges. He prefers to take realistic risk because he wants to succeed. So, an entrepreneurs are not risk taker rather they are risk eliminators. They work in such a way that obstacles that come in the way of their project can be removed. 

2) Desire for Responsibility: This is a fundamental characteristic of an entrepreneur who feels deep sense of personal responsibility for the results of the project he starts. He prefers to control over the resource, which he uses for achieving self determined goals. 

3) High level of Energy: or Hard working: Entrepreneur is more energetic than the ordinary man. Hard work and long working hours are common feature of an entrepreneur. They are inspired by inner urge and by the motivational stories of great achievers. The young intelligent and creative entrepreneur like to work 12 hours or more a day just to avoid having to work 8 hours a day for some one else. 

4) Innovator: An innovative entrepreneur sees the opportunity for introducing a new technique or a new product or a new market. He explores new market and organises the enterprise. He exploits the invention commercially and thus produces new and better goods which give him profit and satisfaction. 

5) Creative: Creativity is a special ability to find new ideas implementing such changes in an acceptable way. Further successful innovation depends upon the creativity. It is one of the most important requirements of an entrepreneur to be creative. 

6) Commitment and Determination: Entrepreneurs generally have high level of energy due to which they are committed to the successful execution of their plan. They are devoted to their business with a deep sense of determination for success. Both commitment and determination is generally seen in their action. 

7) Future orientation (Vision): Entrepreneur looks beyond the present and concerns himself with considering what can be done in the future rather than brooding on what was done in the past. They do not like to sit back. They stay focused on the future. They work with a vision for growth, committed to constructive change. 

8) Self confidence and Optimistic: Entrepreneurs direct their abilities towards the accomplishment of goals with ups and down in the strength. They have to face many ups and down in the business. But they believe in themselves and handle the situation confidently. They work with a positive approach and optimistic attitude. Entrepreneurs not only maintain their confidence and optimism, but they also raise the level of their team members also. 

9) Organiser: An entrepreneur knows now to bring together the right people for accomplishing a task. He effectively and efficiently combines jobs and people and transforms his vision-into reality.

10) Integrity and Reliability: Entrepreneurs do not like to be controlled by others. They prefer to work independently specially for themselves. They like to take initiative for solving the problem. They always own the responsibility for the outcome of the project with which they are associated.

11) Socially Responsible: Entrepreneur remains fully aware abut his responsibility towards society. He understands that fact the society also expects from him. He tries to do so by creating employment opportunities, by creating new product, innovative products, quality products, fair price and quality assurance etc. He does things in an effective and efficient way. Proper Utilisation of resources made by him, i.e. also considered as a contribution to society. So, the old concept of making profit for only himself is no more followed or accepted these days.

12) Flexibility: Entrepreneur keeps himself updated regarding changes in the environment. He is capable of adapting himself to the varying demands of business and customers. He clearly understands that rigidity (inability to change) may lead to failure in today fast changing global economy.

13) Technically Competent: Technological change is the prime mover in the process of economic growth. Inventions and innovation have led the process of development in the world. The success of an enterprise largely depends upon the adoption of the present prevailing technology. Entrepreneurs are technically competent these days. They generally have a reasonable level of technical knowledge. They keep themselves updated in the changing pattern of production, suited to their requirement. 

14) Communication Ability: Communication plays an important role in the success of an enterprises. Entrepreneurs these days possess the quality of good communication. They are well equipped with the importance of communication and the use of latest technology in the process of communication.

15) Tolerance for Ambiguity: Entrepreneur tend to have a high tolerance for ambiguity, especially in the face of uncertainty and unknown outcomes. They handle the uncertainty with their will and skill by making bold decisions. They face the adversity bodly and bravely.

FUNCTIONS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR: Entrepreneur is a person who performs many useful functions. He undertakes a venture, assumes risks and earns profits. Some of his most important functions are as under: 

1) Assumption of Risk: Risk taking or uncertainty bearing implies assuming the responsibility for loss that may arise due to unforeseen contingencies of the future. A business risk also involves the risk due to possibility of change in the taste of consumers, technique of production, new invention etc. The entrepreneur has to bear these high degree of risks. He assumes all possible risks of the business. Thus, risk assumption and risk bearing is the most important function of an entrepreneur. He tries to reduce risk with his initiatives, knowledge and skills and good decisions. 

2) Business Decision: Entrepreneur has been stated as a decision maker also. He has to decide the nature and type of goods to be produced or services to be rendered in the society. He decides the specific industry into which he will work and get a reasonable return. He has to decide the best possible method of production. He makes suitable changes in the size of business, its location, technique of production and does everything that is needed for the maintenance and development of the business.

3) Managerial Functions: Entrepreneur has to perform a lot of managerial functions in his enterprise. There are different types of managerial functions that an entrepreneur has to perform and these are based on the size and activities of the enterprises. These functions include formulation of production plan, arrangement of finance, purchase of raw material. procurement of production facilities, organisation of sales, personnel management and so on. Further administrative functions of recruitment, selection, etc. This is considered to be very tough job. However, in a large establishment, these managerial functions can be delegated to the paid subordinates.

4. Functions of Innovation: According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is basically an innovator who introduces new combinations of means of production. It is the entrepreneur who conceives the idea for the improvement in the quality of product line. He considers the economic viability and technological feasibility of the total project. It is this function of the entrepreneur which injects the elements of dynamism into the economic system.

Thus, Generally, an entrepreneur performs many useful functions for the development of the society and it satisfies the needs of the various stakeholders in the enterprises.

Define an Entrepreneur. Explain the characteristics and functions of entrepreneur.

Personal Selling: Meaning, Advantages and Limitations

 Q. What is Personal Selling? Explain its advantages and limitations.

A. Meaning of Personal Selling: Personal selling is one of the elements of promotion mix of marketing along with advertising, sales promotion and publicity. In personal selling, direct contact is made between salesman and customer. It is a face to face communication. Personal selling is a process involving face to face interaction between prospective buyer and salesman, where the purpose is to persuade the buyer to purchase the product. Personal-selling makes use of direct personal communication to influence target customers. Personal selling is more flexible than other tools of promotion mix, because salesmen can adjust their message according to the response of prospective customers.

Advantages of Personal Selling: The main advantages of personal selling are as follows: 

(1) Immediate Feedback: Unlike advertising, personal selling is a two-way communication that takes place between buyer and salesman. So, salesman can get immediate feedback from the prospective buyer. 

(2) Flexible: Personal selling is flexible as sales presentation can be adjusted as per the need, reaction, availability of time and response of prospective buyer.

(3) Demonstration: Personal selling is the only component of promotion mix where physical demonstration of product is possible. Salesman demonstrate the product and explain the method of using the product. 

(4) Most suitable for Technical and Industrial Products: Technical and industrial products are marketed through personal selling as their number of customers is small, the producer are costly, requiring personal convincing, products are technical, requiring detailed explanation of technicalities of the product. So, in case of technical and industrial products, personal selling is more suitable than advertising.

(5) Minimum Wastage of Selling Efforts: In personal selling, selling efforts can be directed towards target customers, whereas in case of advertisement, message is directed to the mass audience, which may include persons who have no interest in the advertised product.

(6) Clarification of Doubts, Queries and Objections: While making sales call, the prospective customer can raise his doubts, queries and objections. The salesmen can solve his doubts, which is not possible in case of other components of communication mix. 

(7) Performs Entire Selling Job: Personal selling performs all the activities of selling process like informing about the product, persuading the buyer to buy the product, actual selling of product, whereas in advertising, actual selling cannot be done. For example, companies like Amway, Tupperware are selling their products through personal selling.

(8) More Customer Satisfaction: In personal selling, there is face-to-face communication between salesmen and customer. Customer gets his doubts cleared, he also learns about the method of using the product from salesman, hence customer feels more confident in his purchase decision. All this promotes level of customer satisfaction.

(9) Very Suitable for Marketing of Services: Services like banking, insurance can better be marketed through personal selling, because through personal persuasion, the buyer is made to realise the need of services.

(10) Creation of Demand: Pioneering salesmen are helpful in creating new uses of the product, searching new customers, thus creating demand and promoting sales of the organisation. These salesmen create desire in the mind of prospective customer and convert this desire into demand.

(11) Promotes New Products: With the fast changes in technology, various new products are entering into the market. Personal selling is very useful in marketing of such new products. Personal salesmen carry these products and convince the prospects regarding the uses of these new products. It helps the organisation to promote the new products. 

(12) Increases Knowledge of Customers: While making sales calls salesmen display the product, convey its uses, method of handling the product and clarify the doubts, queries of the prospects. Salesmen also provide knowledge about the product viz., how this product can be installed, from where it can be purchased, repaired, etc. All this increases the knowledge of customers.

(13) Collects Market Information: Salesmen are in direct contact with the prospective buyers in the actual market situation. Salesmen collect first hand information about the liking, disliking, desires, doubts, objections, queries, suggestions of customers and send all this information to the top management. This information is very useful in future decision making and sales planning.

(14) Increases Employment: Personal selling provides employment to various persons who are working as salesmen.

(15) Helpful in Facing Competition: Personal selling helps the organisation in facing competition. In case of high competition, personal selling is very useful tool of promotion mix.

(16) Helpful in Relationship Marketing: Through personal selling, organisations can develop and maintain long term relationship with customers. Personalised customer services are provided which improve relations with customers. It, in turn, helps to procure repurchase orders.

Limitations of Personal Selling: Despite its benefits, personal selling has some limitations which are as follows:

(1) Very Costly: For personal selling, business unit will have to appoint a large sales force. If number of customers is large and customers are scattered, then personal selling proves very costly as travelling expenses of sales force will be more.

(2) Turnover of Sales Force: Business unit has to spend large amount on recruitment, selection and training of sales force. But when salesmen leave the job, it is a loss to the business unit. Salesmen turnover also badly affects the image of business unit.

(3) Not Much Useful for Convenience Consumer Goods: Personal selling is not much useful for selling convenience consumer goods like toothpaste, soap, pens, etc as here profit margin is low and it cannot justify the cost of sales call.

(4) Inefficient Sales Force: If sales force is inefficient, untrained, short-tempered, inexperienced, then personal selling will not be effective.

(5) Time Consuming: It takes lot of time to contact prospective customers. If immediate results are required, personal selling is not suitable.

(6) Busyness of Customers: Now-a-days, everyone has very busy life. The target customers often avoid salesman. When a salesman comes to make sales call, people don't even allow him to enter the house on one pretext or the other.

(7) Wrong Tactics Adopted by Some Salesmen: Some salesmen cheat the buyers by stating wrong facts about the product. This affects the profession of salesmanship badly as salesmen lose trust-worthiness.

What is Personal Selling? Explain its advantages and limitations.

“A company is an artificial person created by law having a separate entity with a perpetual succession and a common seal.” Explain this statement and discuss the basic features of the company.

 Q. “A company is an artificial person created by law having a separate entity with a perpetual succession and a common seal.”  Explain this statement and discuss the basic features of the company.

Ans. A company is an artificial person created by law. It has not any hand, leg, heart or physical body. Its existence comes when a company is formed and registered under company law. After coming in existence, it can do all business work like a human businessman. It can open its bank account. Company can buy or sell any asset on its own name. Company gets loan on its own name. It can sell own shares in the market. 

There will not any effect on the company whether any shareholder will come or go. Company will live if any shareholder sells his all shares. Other person who will buy the shares will become the new owner of the company. Company will not have any personal relation with shareholder. Every shareholder’s liability upto his bought shares.

It has also its own a common seal. This seal will use in all the agreements which will done on the name of company. Company cannot sign, so it is very necessary for making common seal which company can use as showing his identity on every agreement. All the documents will only legal if authorised person’s sign will be on the document and company’s seal will be on the same document.

FEATURES OF COMPANY: The main features of a company are as follows: 

(1) Incorporated Association: A company is established by law, and can exist till such time as it is recognised by law. Under companies Act, it is necessary for a company that is formed to be registered i.e., it needs to be incorporated.

(2) Artificial Person: Another important characteristic of a company is that it is an artificial person created by law. It is called an ‘artificial person’because its birth is not a natural birth. It is invisible, intangible and immortal artificial person that has an identity only in the eyes of law. It has no body, no soul and suffers no pain and enjoys no pleasure. Being an artificial person, it cannot take an oath, be imprisoned or personally appear in a court of law. It cannot get married or become a professional like a doctor or a lawyer. But it cannot be treated as a 'fictional person' or a 'fictitious entity' because it really does exist. Like a natural person, a company can buy and sell properties, make agreements or enter into contracts and employ people on its payroll. It can also be penalised if it does not abide by law. In other words, it can be said that a company, though lifeless, enjoys the privileges of a living person.

(3) Separate Legal Entity: The most important characteristic of a company is that it is a separate legal entity. As per-law, the company acquires a separate legal entity after it is incorporated which is distinct from the entity of its members. As a result, a company can enter into a contract with any of its members, buy property in its name, borrow or lend money, open a bank account or file a suit in a court of law against a third party. Likewise, others can also file a suit against the company. In other words, a company can do all such acts which a natural person would do in the course of his business. The case of Solomon Vs. Solomon & Co. is an illustration.

(4) Perpetual Succession: Perpetual succession is another important characteristic of a company. Its existence is not dependent on that of its shareholders or directors. The shareholders or the directors might change, but the company goes on. Death, insolvency or lunacy of its members has no effect whatsoever on the existence of the company. Members may come and members may go, but the company goes on forever. 

(5) Common Seal: A company is an artificial person and, as such, it cannot put its signature on documents. That is why it is mandatory under law that every company must have a common seal with its name engraved upon it. The common seal is the symbol of the company’s identity and is as good as a signature. When it puts its seal on a document, the company becomes bound by the contents of the document.

(6) Limited Liability: The liability of the shareholders of the company is limited. In case of financial loss to the company, howsoever heavy, the liability of the shareholders is limited to the amount unpaid on their shares, and their personal property cannot be used to pay the company debts.

(7) Number of members: The minimum number of members in a public company is seven and the maximum can be as much as the shares issued by the company. In other words, the maximum number of members in a public company is indefinite and is not specified. In a private company, the minimum number of members is two, and the maximum is two hundred, excluding members who are or were employees of the company.

(8) Representative Management: A company is deemed to be an artificial and imaginary person and, as such, it cannot manage its own affairs. A company, is administered and managed by representatives appointed by the shareholders. The shareholders are too many in number and scattered far and wide– which makes it impossible for the company affairs to be controlled by them. Besides, the objective of the shareholders is to make a profit– not to run the company’s business.

(9) Limitation of Action: A company is incorporated for the realisation of a specific objective or objectives. The objectives of the company are described in its prospectus and define the limitation of the companies activities. No company can cross this 'limitation of action' and engage itself in an activity which is not listed in its prospectus. If a company does that, its actions are not recognised by law and are deemed to be beyond the sphere of its authority. A company cannot, of its own will, start a new business or change its field of activity and do something which does not conform to its objectives.

(10) Transferability of Shares: The capital of a company is made up of shares of a definite value, and is contributed by its shareholders. According to Section 44 of the Companies Act, 2013, each shareholder can freely transfer his or her shares. But in some specific situations, the company may impose restrictions on the transfer of shares.

(11) Termination of Existence: Like it is born by an act of law, a company may also be terminated by law.

(12) Company is not a Citizen: A company is, without doubt, a legal ‘person’ or entity, but

under Article 19 of the Indian Constitution, it is not a citizen. It has no 'fundamental rights like a citizen has. As such, a company cannot take the recourse of law to press for its fundamental rights like a citizen can. For example, a company does not have the right to franchise.

“A company is an artificial person created by law having a separate entity with a perpetual succession and a common seal.” Explain this statement and discuss the basic features of the company.

Define Financial Management. Discuss the nature and functions of financial management.

 Q. Define Financial Management. Discuss the nature and functions of financial management.

Ans. MEANING OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: The word ‘Financial Management’ is a combination of two words i.e Financial and Management. Financial meaning related to finance and management meaning making arrangements to get a job done in the most efficient and best possible manner. Thus, the combined meaning of financial management is to manage the finance related operations of a business enterprise in the best and most efficient manner. 

Financial management is that part of managerial process which is concerned with the planning and controlling of (financial resources of enterprise.) firm’s financial resources. It is concerned with the procurement of funds from most suitable sources and making the most efficient use of such funds. It deals with raising finance for the enterprise and the efficient utilisation of such finance. It includes investment decisions, financing decisions, dividend decisions, liquidity decisions, capital budgeting, budgetary control etc.

DEFINITION OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: 

Financial Management or Finance function may be defined as:–

(1) “The finance function is the process of acquiring and utilising funds by a business.”

  — R.C. Osborn 

(2)  “Financial Management is the operational activity of a business that is responsible for obtaining and effectively utilizing the funds necessary for efficient operations.” 

— Joseph L. Massie

NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: 

(1) An essential part of top management: Financial Management is an essential part of top management. In the traditional approach financial manager was considered to be an unimportant person as far as the top management decision making was considered. But in the modern business management the financial manager is one of the active members of top management team and day-by-day his role is becoming more significant in solving the complex management problems. This is because almost all kinds of business activities such as production, marketing etc. directly or indirectly involve the acquisition and use of finance.

(2) Less Descriptive and More Analytical: Modern financial management is less descriptive and more analytical. Due to the development of new statistical and accounting techniques of financial analysis, the financial management chooses the best alternative out of the many possible alternatives.

(3) Continuous Function: Financing is a continuous function. In addition to the raising of finance, there is a continuous need for planning and controlling the finances of an enterprise. A firm performs finance functions continuously in the normal course of the business.

(4) Different from Accounting Function: There are key differences between the accounting and finance function. Accounting generates information or data whereas in the finance function the data are analysed and used for the purpose of decision making.

(5) Wide Scope: There is wide scope of financial management. It is concerned not only with the raising of finance but also with the allocation and efficient use of such finance. It is also responsible for financial accounting, cost accounting, auditing, budgeting, management of cash, management of receivables and management of inventories.

(6) Centralised Nature: Financial management is centralised in nature. Whereas the production management, marketing management and personnel management functions can be decentralised, it is neither possible nor desirable to decentralise the financial responsibilities.

(7) Measurement of Performance: Financial management is concerned with the wise use of finance. It fixes certain norms and standards against which the benefits of an investment decision are matched. In other words, it matches the cost of finance with the return received from its use. Thus, it is concerned with the achievement of broad financial goals which an enterprise sets for itself.

(8) Inseparable Relationship between Finance and Other Activities: There exists an inseparable relationship between finance on the one hand and production, marketing and other activities on the other. All activities are related to finance. For example, buying a new machine or replacing an old machine is clearly a responsibility of the production department but it also involves finance. Similarly, recruitment of employees, advertisement, sales promotion all require financial resources.

(9) Applicable to All Types of Organisations: It is applicable to all forms of organisations whether corporate or non-corporate such as sole proprietorship and partnership firms etc. Similarly, it also applies to the concerns engaged in manufacturing or providing services and also the activities of non-profit organisations.

FUNCTIONS OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: There are three basic functions of financial management, namely (i) raising finance, (ii) investing it in assets, and (iii) distributing returns earned from assets to shareholders. Theses three functions are respectively known as financing decision, investment decision, and dividend policy decision. Various other functions are also performed such working capital decision, planning and controlling the finance and certain routine functions. Hence, the functions of financial management are: 

(1) Determining the Financial needs: The first task of the financial management is to estimate and determine the financial requirements of the business. For this purpose, the short-term and long-term needs of the business are estimated separately. Financial needs are estimated with a long-term view so that necessary funds will be available for expansion and renewal of plant and machinery in future. While determining the financial needs the financial management should take into consideration the nature of the business, possibilities for future expansion, attitude of the management towards risk, general economic circumstances, etc.

(2) Financing Decision: This function is related to raising of finance from different sources. For this purpose the financial manager is to determine the proportion of debt and equity. In other words, what proportion of total funds will be raised from loans and what proportion will be provided by shareholders. The mixing of debt and equity is known as the firm's capital structure or leverage. Raising of funds through debts results in a higher return to the shareholders but it also increases risk. Hence, a proper balance will have to be ensured between debt and equity. A capital structure with a reasonable proportion of debt and equity capital is termed the optimum capital structure. When the return to shareholders is maximized with minimum risk, the per share market value of company's shares will be maximized and the firm's capital structure will be considered optimum. In order to raise the capital, a prospectus is issued and services of underwriters are used.

(3) Investment Decision: Investment decision also known as 'Capital Budgeting' is related to the selection of long-term assets or projects in whick investments will be made by the business. Long-term assets are the assets which would yield benefits over a period of time in future. Since the future benefits are difficult to measure and cannot be predicted with certainty, investment decisions involve risk. Investment decisions should, therefore, be evaluated in terms of both expected retum and risk. Further, a minimum required rate of return also known as cut-off rate is also determined against which the expected return from new investment can be compared.

(4) Working Capital Decision: It is concerned with the management of current assets. It is an important function of financial management since short-term survival of the firm is a pre-requisite for its long-term success. Current assets should be managed in such a way that the investment in current assets is neither inadequate nor unnecessary funds are locked up in current assets. If a firm does not have adequate working capital, that is its investment in current assets is inadequate, it may become illiquid and as a result may not be able to meet its current obligations and, thus, invite the risk of bankruptcy. On the other hand, if the investment in current assets is too large, the profitability of the firm will be adversely affected because idle current assets will not earn anything. Thus the financial management must develop a sound technique of managing current assets. It should properly estimate the current assets requirements of the firm and make sure that funds would be made available when needed.

(5) Dividend Policy Decision: The financial management has to decide as to which portion of the profits is to be distributed as dividend among shareholders and which portion is to be retained in the business. For this purpose the financial management should take into consideration the factors of dividend stability, bonus shares and cash dividends in practice. Usually, the profitable companies pay cash dividends regularly. Periodically, the bonus shares are also issued to the existing equity shareholders.

(6) Financial Control: The establishment and use of financial control devices is an important function of financial management. These devices include budgetary control, cost control, ratio analysis etc. In financial control, first of all standards of financial performance are determined. Thereafter, actual performance is compared with the predetermined standards and the deviations are ascertained. The reasons for such deviations are also found out so that steps are taken to remove those deviations.

(7) Routine Functions: For the effective execution of the finance functions, certain routine functions have to be performed in the normal course of the business The routine functions are:

(a) Supervision of cash receipts and payments and safeguarding of cash balance,

(b) Opening bank accounts and managing them.

(c) Safeguarding of securities, insurance policies and other valuable documents.

(d) Maintaining records and preparation of reports.

(e) Establishing a proper system of internal audit.

Define Financial Management. Discuss the nature and functions of financial management.

What is Business Environment ? What are its characteristics?

 Q. What is Business Environment ? What are its characteristics?

Ans. MEANING OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT: Business Environment (means)  is the sum total of all those factors which influence the business has no control. It has both threats and opportunities for the business. Threats refers to the negative changes that occurs in business environment and hinders the performance of the business organisation. Opportunities refers to the positive changes that occurs in the business environment and helps the organisation to improve its performance. The study of business environment enables the managers to identify threats and opportunities. 

Thus, Business Environment refers to the all the external factors which have a bearing on the functioning of the business. It refers to all forces which are external to business and beyond its control. 

Definition:

According to Prof. Keith Davis, “Business Environment is the aggregate of all conditions, events and influences that surround and affect the business.” 

In the words of V.P. Michael, “Business Environment is the sum total of the environmental factors which provide an atmosphere for the business. It has a direct relation with business organisation which operates in it.” 

CHARACTERISTICS OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT: 

(1) Totality of external forces: Business environment is the total of all those forces/factors which are available outside the business and over which the business has no control. That’s why its nature is of totality. 

Or

Aggregation of external forces:  A business environment is the aggregate of all the external forces such as individuals, consumers, government and legal matters that affect the performance of an organisation either positively or negatively. 

(2) Specific and general forces: Forces outside the business can be divided into two parts:

a) Specific: These forces affect the firms of an industry separately. e.g. customers, suppliers, investors, competitive firms etc. 

b) general: These forces affect the firms of an industry equally. e.g. social, political, legal and technical situations. 

Specific forces affect the business directly and immediately in its day-to-day working whereas general forces have an indirect effect on the business. 

(3) Interrelatedness: Different factors or components of business environment are related to each other and affect each other.

(4) Dynamic nature: Components of business environment changes continuously. So, the business environment is dynamic in nature which means it keeps on changing from time to time, reigon to reigon and country to country. 

(5) Uncertain: Business environment creates uncertainty for business firms as it is very difficult to predict environment and changes of future. Because of its uncertain nature, its study and analysis is difficult.

(6) Complex in nature: Business environment is a combination of many factors that have an Inter relation with business in many ways. These factors affect each other also. It is very difficult to know how these factors will influence the business. Thus, business environment is complex in nature. 

(7) Relativity (Relation): Business environment is a relative concept. It means business environment is related to local conditions. That’s why business environment is different in different countries and even different at different places in the same country. For eg. political conditions, religion, beliefs etc are different in different reigons. 

(8) Multi-faceted: Environment is multi-faceted. The same environment trend can have different effects on different industries. The same (one) can be threat for one company and opportunity for another company. 

(9) Far reaching impact: Environment has far reaching impact on business. Business and its environment are interdependent to each other. So any change in an environment has a direct impact on organisation in different ways. 

OR 

CHARACTERISTICS OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT: 

(1) Complex in Nature: Environment is a combination of many factors like political, economic, legal, social, cultural, technological, etc. These factors affect the business in many ways. Therefore, the influence that they exercise on business cannot be recognised independently.

(2) Dynamic: It is obvious that environment is a mixture of many factors and there are constant changes in some of them. It is only because of these changes in the factors of environment that make environment dynamic. The environmental factors change with passage of time. The plans and policies of business too have to be changed to keep pace with changing environment.

(3) Business Environment Affects Different Firms Differently: It is not necessary that any 

particular change in environment should affect all business units in a similar manner. One business unit may welcome a change in environment, while some other business unit may feel adverse effect of the same change. Therefore, environment may affect different business units in different manner.

(4) Business Environment has both Short-term and Long-term Impact: Every change in environment has both short-term and long-term impact on business. The changed environment affects the profitability, productivity and development of business in both short term and long term.

(5) Unlimited Effect of External Environmental Factors: External factors of business environment are uncontrollable. These factors have very deep effect on business. Sometimes the effect of these factors is so deep that it may take the business unit to closure. For example, decision of government to ban wine, whisky will compel wine shops to wind-up their business.

(6) Uncertain: The external business environment is very uncertain. There can be sudden change in it at any time. Because of its uncertain nature, its study and analysis is difficult.

(7) Interdependent Components: Various components of business environment are interdependent of each other. Different components of environment affect each other. For example, economic environment affects social environment and is also affected by it.

(8) Includes both Internal and External Environment: Business environment includes both internal and external environment. Internal environment means environment within the organisation; this environment is within the control of business unit. External environment is outside the organisation and is beyond the control of business unit. Business unit will have to change its activities along with changes in external environment.

What is Business Environment ? What are its characteristics?

Holding Company: What It Is, Advantages and Disadvantages

 Q. What is meant by Holding Company? Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Holding Companies. 

Ans. MEANING OF HOLDING COMPANY: A holding company is a company which controls another which controls another company by acquiring all or majority of its shares carrying voting rights or controlling the composition of board of directors. The company whose shares have been acquired is known as subsidiary company. The subsidiary company continues to operate as before because acquisition of controlling interest by another company does not result in its liquidation. 

ADVANTAGES OF HOLDING COMPANIES: 

(i) Easy Method of Acquiring Control: A company needs to invest comparatively a small amount in order to acquire control over other company through this method. 

(ii) Possibility of Maintaining Separate Goodwill: By maintaining the separate identities of holding and subsidiary companies, it would be possible to naintain their separate goodwill. 

(iii) Ascertainment of Separate Profitability and Financial Position: Since each subsidiary company has to prepare its own accounts, the profitability and financial position of each company is known.

(iv) Availing Income-Tax Benefits: By maintaining separate identities of holding and subsidiary companies, it would be possible to avail income tax benefits by carrying forward the losses of each company to the next year. This is not possible in case of amalgamation.

(v) Easy to Get Rid of Subsidiary: Whenever it is desired to get rid of the subsidiary company, it can be easily done by disposing off the shares of such company in the market.

(vi) Easy to Wind-up the Subsidiary: In case the subsidiary company is continuously running into losses, it can be easily wound-up.

(vii) Efficiency in Management: Since both the companies maintain their separate identity, the size of the holding company remains the same. It is easier to manage both the companies separately.

(viii) Elimination of Competition: Since both the companies are managed by the same group, competition between them is completely eliminated.

(ix) Benefit of Internal and External Economies: Both the companies can avail of the technical know-how and financial resources of each other. Hence, they are able to avail the internal and external economies.

(x) Other Advantages: Other advantages are:

I. Increase in goodwill and credit worthiness of both the companies,

II. Smooth supply of raw material,

III. Getting on assured market, and

IV. Pooling of resources whenever needed.

DISADVANTAGES OF HOLDING COMPANIES:

(i) Fraud in Inter-Company Transactions: Inter-Company transaction between holding and subsidiary are often entered at too high or too low priss in order to suit the holding company.

(ii) Fear of Oppression of Minority Shareholders: Subsidiaries company is run in a manner that suits the interest of holding company. Financial and other resources of the subsidiary are used to the benefit of holding company. As such there is always the danger of oppression of minority shareholder’s interests. 

(iii) Forced Appointment of Directors: Subsidiary companies are forced to appoint the directors or other officers chosen by the holding company. Their remuneration is also fixed by the holding company which may be too high.

(iv) Difficulty in Ascertaining the True Financial Position: Shareholders in the holding company may not be aware of the true profitability and the financial position of subsidiary companies. Likewise, creditors and the outside shareholders in the subsidiary Company also may not be aware of the true picture of the company.

(v) Fear of Mismanagement: Where the group has a good number of constituents and managerial ability is limited, there must be mismanagement resulting into ruin of the group as a whole.

(vi) Difficulties in Valuing the Inventory: Difficulties may be experienced while valuing the Inventory containing huge quantities of inter-company goods.

(vii) Speculation in Shares: By manipulation of profits, reserves, inter-company sales etc. directors may speculate in the shares of the subsidiary companies, when such shares are quoted in the stock exchange.

(viii) Creation of Secret Reserves: Secret reserves may be easily created by the unscrupulous directors to the detriment of the minority interest.

What is meant by Holding Company? Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Holding Companies. 

salient features of Right to Information Act, 2005

 Q. Discuss the salient features of Right to Information Act, 2005. 

Ans. The salient features of Right to Information Act, 2005 are as under:

1. This Act may be called Right to Information Act, 2005.

2. This Act defines ‘Appropriate Government’ which may be termed as Public Authority.

3. The Public Authority is established, constituted, owned, controlled or substantially financed by funds provided directly or indirectly by the Central Government or the Union Territory or State Government.

4. This Act is applicable to all public authorities such as all central and state government ministries, departments, organisations, undertakings, autonomous bodies, municipalities, Panchayat, etc. enacted by law and also covers the Union Territories, Election Commission, Auditor General, Public Service Commission and the judiciary and the legislature are covered under its purview. Interal and Foreign private institutions situated (working) within the country have been kept out of its purview. 

5. The Act requires the public authority and its officers to maintain and keep ready its records and machinery so as to facilitate the right to Information.

6. The Act provides that if the Information sought for relates to another office or another public Information officer, then the Public Information Officer receiving the application for Information can transfer the application to the Public Information Officer of the concerned office. 

7. In general cases, normally the request for information shall be disposed by the concerned Information officer within 30 days of the receipt of request. Where the information sought relates (pertains) to third party, the same shall be provided within 40 days of the receipt of request. But if the information sought for concerns the life or liberty of a person, the same shall be provided within 48 hours of the receipt of request. 

8. The fee for seeking information shall be reasonable. There shall be no fee for citizens below poverty line.

9. The Act provides for Constitution of a Central Information Commission at the highest level and State Information Commission at state level. There shall be Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioner in both the Commissions. 

10. The Act provides for two-level forum for making appeal, i.e. appeal shall be filed at two levels.

– One within the organisation to the senior officer to the Public Information officer known as First Appellate Authority.

– The second appeal shall be filed with the Central or State Information Commission, as the case may be. 

11. The Act provides that if the concerned Public Information Officer does not furnish the required information within specified period or refuses to provide information, the applicant making request for information shall file an appeal within 30 days of the date of such refusal. An appeal shall be disposed of within a 30 days of the receipt of the appeal or within such extended period not exceeding a total of 45 days from the date of filling.

12. The provisions of this Act are of overriding nature and these provisions cannot be made ineffective by proceedings of the lower courts. 

13. The Central and State Information Commissions shall, after the end of each year, prepare a report on the implementation of this Act during that year and forward a copy to the appropriate Government which shall be laid down before each House of Parliament or State Legislature as the case may be. 

14. The Central Government, by using power vested (मिली हुई है) under this Act, shall check out programmes to advance the understanding of the public and develop (promote) the information machinery. 

15. If any Public Information Officer neither furnishes the information nor refuses to furnish the information within specified time, he shall be penalised with ₹ 250 per day for the delay period subject to the total amount of such penalty not exceeding ₹ 25,000.

16. The amount of fee deposited by the applicant for seeking information shall have to be returned, if information is not furnished within specified period.

17. If any person, with one reason or the other, is unable to give written application for seeking information, he can tell it orally to the concerned Public Information Officer and it will be taken as his oral request for seeking information. In such cases, the concerned Public Information Officer shall render all reasonable assistance to the person making the request orally to reduce the same in writing.

The salient features of Right to Information Act, 2005

Buyer Behaviour & nature of Indian Consumers buying behaviour

 Q. What is buyer behaviour? What is the nature of Indian Consumers buying behaviour? 

Ans. MEANING OF BUYER BEHAVIOUR: Buyer behaviour is known as consumer behaviour. The whole behaviour of a person while making purchases may be termed as consumer behaviour. It is an attempt and prediction of human action in the buying role. Understanding the consumer behaviour of the target market is the essential task of marketing management under the modern marketing concept. 

Consumer behaviour consists of both physical as well as mental activities. The study of consumer behaviour provides a sound basis for identifying and Understanding consumer needs. The study of consumer behaviour is concerned with consumer's buying behaviour rather than actual consumption. 

According to Schiffman and Kanuk, The study of consumer behaviour is the study of how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources (I.e. time, money and efforts) on consumption-related items. It includes the study of what they buy, why they buy, when they buy, where they buy, how often they buy it and how often they use it. 

Thus, consumer behaviour includes the acts of individuals directly involved in obtaining and using goods and services including sequence of decision decision processes that precede and determine these acts. Also, it is necessary to study the consumer behaviour for sound marketing planning. 

NATURE OF INDIAN CONSUMERS BUYING BEHAVIOUR: Due to diversity in social system, customs, religion, language, food habits, cultures, sub-cultures, etc. the behaviour of Indian consumers is not uniform. Following characteristics are found in their behaviour.

1. Bargaining: Indian customers are very fond of bargaining. They prefer buying goods by reducing the price as told by the seller. Indian sellers too don’t frame a uniform price policy. In rural markets, the trend of bargaining still persists, but in urban areas now, customers prefers one price policy of the seller. They prefer to visit stores where there is no bargaining.

2. Price consciousness: Because of less income in the agriculture occupation, Indian consumer focus on price instead of the quality of the product. But now, consumers are quality conscious. They purchase quality products even at high price.

What is buyer behaviour? What is the nature of Indian Consumers buying behaviour?

3. Brand consciousness: Because of less education facilities, rural population are still unaware about the standard brand names of the product. They are concerned with the product and not with its brand name. But with the expansion of education and means of communication, the behaviour of Indian consumers is going on changing. Now they like branded products and they have brand loyalty of some reputed manufactures.

4. Complaining: Indian consumers are less complaining people. They believe that if a seller cheats on them, God will punish him. They are innocent and illiterate people. They do not kmow the laws and rights as a consumer. But now with the expansion of consumerism, consumers are more aware about their rights. They have started exhibiting their complaints through media and representation before 'Consumer Forums' under Consumer Protection Act, 1986. 

5. Role of women: The role of women is increasing day by day particularly in buying decisions and buying from the market. Women are generally interested in varieties and good looking products.

6. Changing consumption pattern: Because of increase in education, increase in income, increase in standard of living and also desires of more comforts, the pattern of consumption is now being changed. Indian consumers are more desirous of comforts and luxury products. 

7. Guarantee: Indian consumers are more interested in guarantee and warrantee. They prefer to purchase those commodities which are guaranteed by the manufacturers, regarding quality, durability, efficiency and effectiveness. 

8. Credit: Credit facilitates the consumers to buy those products which they cannot buy with their current cash resources. Indian consumers like to buy the products on credit, because their disposable income falls short to fulfill the demand for consumer durables. 

So, the proper understanding of consumer behaviour is essential for the marketers as it serves as the foundation of the marketing.

What is buyer behaviour? What is the nature of Indian Consumers buying behaviour?

Human Resource Management- meaning, nature and objectives.

Q. Define Human Resource Management. Explain its nature and objectives. 

Ans. MEANING OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: In simple words, Human Resource means people working within the organisation. It refers to the knowledge, skills, abilities, values, aptitude and beliefs possessed by its workforce in the organisation. So, HRM deals with proper or best utilization of available human resources in the organisation.

HRM is the focal point of all the organisations in the present day competitive world. It is not possible for any organisation to achieve its objectives without proper management of human resources. It focuses on Human Approach while managing people in the organisation. It means that organisation should consider its people as an important resource to effectively achieve the objectives of the organisation along with the development of its human resources. HRM is a people oriented management policy. It stresses that organisation should consider its people as an asset not as cost. It deals with acquisition, development, motivation and maintenence of human resources to gain competitive advantage.

DEFINITION OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: 

1. According to Flippo, “Human Resource/Personnel Management may be defined as the planning, organising, directing, and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organisational and societal objectives are accomplished.” 

2. According to Wendell L. French, “The human resource management refers to the philosophy, policies, procedures, and practice related to the management of people within the organisation”.

NATURE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: 

1. Universal: HRM is universal in nature. It is present in all types of organisations i.e. government, business, education, health, social etc. It permeates (spreads, व्याप्त, फैला हुआ है) all types and levels of management in all organisations. 

2. Part of Management Discipline: HRM is a part of management discipline. It is not an independent discipline in itself. It is a functional area of management, so it depends on the management concepts, principles and techniques to a reasonable extent and applies these principles in the area of HRM.

3. People Oriented: HRM is all about people I.e. individual and groups in the organisation. It covers all kinds of people at various levels in the organisation. It is concerned with acquisition, development, motivation and maintenence of people in the organisation.

4. Action Oriented: HRM is an action oriented approach. It deals with policies and practices related to the management of people and resolve their problems by balanced policies.

5. Goal Oriebted: HRM is directed towards attainment of Organisational goals by strategic deployment of capable work force and personnel techniques.

6. Long Term Perspective: HRM is a long term perspective to the management of people in the organisation. Development of human resource and value addition is a long term process and for it, managers have to invest in human resources to harness their knowledge and capability in the organisation.

7. Integrating Mechanism: HRM tries to integrate Organisational goals and personal goals for the benefit of organisation as well as human resources.

8. Development Oriented: HRM is development oriented approach. It aims at development of human resources. It assesses the training needs of the employees and develops their knowledge and skill in the interest of the organisation.

9. Continuous Process: HRM is a continuous process. It has to regularly assess (estimation, valuation) the human resource requirement of the organisation, and plan to.meet the human resource needs of the organisation according to its ever changing needs and human resource requirement of various departments in the organisation.

OBJECTIVES OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:

1. Societal Objectives: Every organisation i.e. business, government, education, health, recreation etc. is a part of society. So, it is the responsibility of the organisation to use the human resources in an ethical way not only for the benefit of organisation but also for the welfare of the society. They should respect the law of nation while hiring human resources into the organisation, maintain proper union-management relations, perform proper labour welfare functions and ensure safety of workers. The failure of organisations to use their resources for society’s benefit may result in failure.

2. Organisational Objectives: No organisation can achieve its objectives without human resources. It is the skill and efficiency of the human resources which utilizes all other resources i.e. money, material, technology, machines etc. So, it is the ultimate source that assists the organisation in achieving its objectives efficiently and economically.

3. Functional Objective: HR department is supposed to perform various functions such as Human Resource Planning, Recruitment, Selection, Training, Development, Appraisal, Employee Relation etc. It has to ensure that adequate number of manpower is available in the organisation according to the current and changing needs of the organisation.

4. Personal Objective: Human resources in the organisation help to achieve organisational goals. So, the organisation should also help human resources to satisfy and achieve their personal goals. There must be proper integration of organisational goal and personal goals so as to effectively achieve organisational goals. The satisfied and motivated employees will work more efficiently in attaining organisational objectives. It is essential to meet personal objectives of human resources in the organisation in order to retain, maintain and motivate them. This will lead to enhance their individual contribution in meeting organisational objectives. 

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: MEANING, NATURE AND OBJECTIVES.

Index Numbers- meaning, uses & problems

1. What are Index Numbers ? Explain uses of Index No.s and discuss various problems faced in the construction of Index No.s. 

Or 

What are Index Numbers ? Explain various problems faced in the construction of Index No.s .  

Or 

Explain the uses of Index Numbers. What are the difficulties in the construction of Index Numbers ?

Ans. MEANING OF INDEX NO.s: Index Numbers is a statistical technique which helps us to measure (which measure) the relative changes in general price level. These are a specialized type of averages designed to measure the change in a group of related variables over a period of time. These are economic barometer of (economic activities of) the country because if one wants to have an idea as to what is happening in an economy, he should check the important indicators like the index number of industrial production, index number of business activity etc.

USES/UTILITY OF INDEX NO.S:  The main uses of Index No.s are the followings:

i) To Simplify Complexities: An index number makes possible the measurement of such complex changes whose direct measurement is not possible. In other words, index numbers are used to measure the changes in some quantity which we cannot observe directly.

ii) Helpful in the Fixation of salary and Dearness Allowances: By index numbers, government and other employees can properly make wage and salary fixation. They determine the instalment of dearness allowance for employees on the basis of index numbers only.

iii) Helpful in Prediction: Index Numbers give the knowledge as to what changes have occured in the past. On the basis of these changes alone, predictions about the future are made. Thus, index numbers are economic barometers.

iv) Helpful in Comparison: Index Numbers make possible the comparative study of phenomena (fact or event that can be observed). By index numbers, the relative changes occurring in the variables are determined. This simplifies the comparison of data on the basis of time and space.

v) To measure purchasing power of money: By index numbers, the changes taking place in purchasing power of money can also measured.

vi) Useful in Business: Index Numbers measures the changes taking place in the business world and prove very useful in making a comparative study of those changes e.g. sales, change in output and value etc. Thus, index numbers, for a businessman, function like a barometer.

PROBLEMS FACED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF INDEX NO.S: The number of problems come up while constructing the index numbers. Some of them are as follows:

i) Purpose of Index Number: Index numbers are of many types as they are constructed for different purposes. A single index can not fulfil all the purposes. It is very essential to fix the purpose of index number, because selection of commodities, their prices, fixation of their weights etc., depend on the very purpose of index numbers. There can be many purposes of an index number- measurement of changes in retail prices or measurement of changes in wholesale prices etc.

ii) Selection of Items: Another important problem in the construction of index numbers is the selection of items. The following things should be considered while making a selection of items. (i) Only those items should be selected which represent the taste, habit, custom and needs of the related group of people, (ii) the selected items should be standardized and of classified feature, (iii) their quality too must be considered, (iv) the number of items should be enough and they should be of current quality, and (v) the selected items must be classified into groups and sub-groups.

iii) Selection of Prices: After making the Selection of items, the next arises the problem of selection of prices. Prices can be of both types– retail and wholesale. Whether wholesale or retail prices are to be used, the decision depends upon the purpose of index number.

iv) Selection of Base year: Another important problem in the construction of index numbers is related to the selection of base year. A base year has to be selected for making an index number. The year for which changes are to be determined, is known as base year. Index number of base year is always taken as 100. In selecting a base year, the following things are to be kept in mind.
a) Base year should be normal year and no unusual event like Earthquake, Flood, War etc. should have taken place in that year.
b) Base year should not be very far in past.
c) So far as possible, base year should be close to the current year.
d) Base year should not be too old or too distant.

v) Selection of Weights: The term weight refers to the relative importance of different items in the construction of index numbers. Another important problem in making of index numbers is to assign weights to different commodities or items. In fact, all commodities included in the construction of Index numbers do not have equal importance. Therefore, to have accurate results, commodities are assigned weights according to their importance. There are two ways of assigning weights: (i) Quantity, (ii) Value. Weights decided in the construction of index numbers should be logical, accurate and rational.

vi) Selection of an Average: Averages can be of several types. Theoretically, any average can be used but in practice, arithmetic mean and geometric mean are used. Geometric mean is considered to be best for the construction of index numbers as this is the most suitable for measuring relative changes but due to the difficulties of computation, in place of geometric mean, arithmetic mean is often used in the construction of index numbers.

vii) Selection of an Appropriate Formula: Various formulae can be used in the construction of index numbers but it is very essential to select the most suitable out of them. This selection depends upon the purpose of index number and availability of data. Fisher's formula, which is called as Fisher's Ideal Index, is considered to be the best.    

Define DATA and Information. How data is different from Information ? Discuss types of information.

 Q. Define DATA and Information. How data is different from Information ? Discuss types of information.

Ans. MEANING OF DATA: Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by human or electronic machine. Data can be represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+,-,*,>,<,= etc.)

MEANING OF INFORMATION: Information is organised or classified data so that it has some surprise value (meaningful values) to the receiver. OR 

Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

Differences between Data and Information.

DATA	INFORMATION
1. Data is Raw facts and figures. 2. Data itself has no meaning. 3. It does not help in decision making. 4. Data cannot be divisible. For example day, month and year. 5. In B.com examination, Anu got 45 marks in Paper 1, 50 marks in Paper 2 and 55 marks in Paper 3. Here marks obtained in different subject is example of data.	1. Information is processed form of the data. 2. Information is always meaningful. 3. It helps in decision making.  4. Information can be divisible. For example Date_of_Birth. 5. Anu passed the B.com examination with 50% marks. Hence, Result of B.com exam becomes an information.

Types of Information: There are three types of information.

1. Strategic Information is used by top management to plan the objectives of their organisation and to assess whether the objectives are being met in practice. This relates to long term planning policies of the organisation as a whole. Such information includes overall profitability of the organisation. Information requirements by top management are met by strategic information by arranging information from internal and external sources. 

2. Tactical or managerial information is used by middle management to ensure that the resources of the business are employed to achieve the strategic objectives of the organisation. This relates to the medium time period planning and is of use at management control level. Such information includes productivity measurement (output per man-hour or per machine-hour), budgetary control or variance analysis report, cash flow forecasts, manning levels, profit results within a particular department of the organisation, labour turnover statistics within a department, short term purchasing requirements etc. A large proportion of this information will be generated from within the organisation. 

Another important function of tactical level is to supply information to strategic tier for the use of top management. 

3. Operational information is used by operation level of management such as foreman or head clerks to ensure that specific tasks are planned and carried out properly within a factory or office etc. This relates to short periods which vary from an hour to a few days. Operational level require information for implementing and regulating operational plans for the purpose of conversion of inputs into outputs. Also it supplies routine and other information to tactical tier in summarised form.

Define DATA and Information. How data is different from Information ? Discuss types of information.

Define DATA and Information. How data is different from Information ? Discuss types of information.